🌟 PSYCHOLOGY – CLASS 12 (CBSE)

1. Introduction

• Human beings continuously think, feel, evaluate, and behave in particular ways that reflect who they are.
• The study of “Self and Personality” explains how individuals perceive themselves, how they behave consistently across situations, and what psychological characteristics define them.
• The term self refers to the thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that a person has about themselves.
• The term personality refers to the enduring patterns of thinking, feeling, motivation, and behavior that make each individual unique.
• Self gives meaning to personal experiences, while personality helps predict behavior.
• Understanding self and personality is essential for:
  • Self-development
  • Adjustment in society
  • Healthy relationships
  • Mental well-being

2. Self and Personality

Self

• The self is the central concept in psychology representing a person’s internal sense of identity.
• It includes:
  • How we see ourselves
  • How we think others see us
  • Our goals, values, strengths, and weaknesses

Personality

• Personality is the distinctive and stable pattern of behavior that characterizes a person.
• It includes:
  • Temperament
  • Emotions
  • Motivation
  • Habits
  • Thought patterns
  • Interpersonal style

Relationship Between Self and Personality

• Self influences how personality develops.
• Our personality traits shape how we evaluate ourselves.
• Together, they determine behavior, adjustment, and personal growth.

3. Concept of Self

The concept of self consists of two major components:

(A) Personal Identity

• Represents one’s unique characteristics, such as:
  • Abilities
  • Appearance
  • Beliefs
  • Goals
  • Personal interests
• Focuses on “What makes me different from others?”

(B) Social Identity

• Represents the groups we belong to:
  • Family
  • Culture
  • Religion
  • Nation
  • Gender
  • Occupation
• Focuses on “Who am I in relation to others?”

4. Cognitive and Behavioural Aspects of Self

The self has several psychological dimensions which explain how we think and behave.

1. Self-Esteem

• Refers to the value judgment people make about themselves.
• High self-esteem → Confidence, resilience
• Low self-esteem → Self-doubt, fear of failure

Influenced by:

• Success and failure
• Family environment
• Peer acceptance
• Cultural values

2. Self-Concept

• The overall perception one has about oneself.
• Includes physical, social, emotional, and academic aspects.
• Formed through experience and interaction with others.

3. Self-Efficacy (Bandura)

• One’s belief in their ability to perform tasks successfully.
• High self-efficacy → better performance, persistence
• Low self-efficacy → avoidance, helplessness

Sources of self-efficacy:

• Mastery experiences
• Social modeling
• Social persuasion
• Emotional states

4. Self-Regulation

• The ability to control thoughts, emotions, and actions.
• Includes:
  • Goal-setting
  • Monitoring progress
  • Problem solving
  • Delaying gratification
• Essential for academic achievement and emotional stability.

5. Social Self

• The self as perceived in social relationships.
• Involves social roles, responsibilities, and expectations.

6. Self-Presentation

• The strategies used to present oneself positively to others.
• Includes impression management and social adjustment.

5. Culture and Self

Culture plays a major role in shaping identity and self-perception.

1. Individualistic Cultures (e.g., USA, Europe)

• Emphasize independence, personal achievement, uniqueness.
• Self = personal identity
• People value self-expression and autonomy.
• “I” is central.

2. Collectivistic Cultures (e.g., India, Japan)

• Emphasize group harmony, cooperation, family values, interdependence.
• Self = social identity
• People value social approval, relationships, duty.
• “We” is central.

Impact of Culture on Self

• Determines whether individuals develop independent or interdependent selves.
• Influences goals, emotions, decision-making, and communication.
• Shapes self-esteem and social behavior.

6. Major Approaches to the Study of Personality

Different psychological theories explain how personality develops.
Here are the major approaches:

A. Type Approaches

1. Hippocrates’ Classification

• Based on body fluids (humours):
  • Sanguine (cheerful)
  • Phlegmatic (calm)
  • Choleric (irritable)
  • Melancholic (sad)

2. Sheldon’s Somatotypes

• Endomorphic → relaxed, sociable
• Mesomorphic → active, assertive
• Ectomorphic → introverted, thoughtful

3. Jung’s Introvert–Extrovert Typology

• Introverts → inward-focused, quiet, reflective
• Extroverts → outgoing, energetic

B. Trait Approaches

Trait theories describe personality as enduring characteristics.

1. Allport’s Trait Theory

• Cardinal traits → dominate entire personality
• Central traits → general characteristics
• Secondary traits → preferences, attitudes

2. Cattell’s 16 PF Theory

• Identified 16 personality factors using factor analysis.

3. Eysenck’s Two-Dimensional Theory

• Personality consists of:
  • Neuroticism–Stability
  • Introversion–Extroversion

Led to four personality types:

• Introverted–Stable
• Extroverted–Stable
• Introverted–Neurotic
• Extroverted–Neurotic

4. Big Five Model (OCEAN)

• Most widely accepted modern theory:
  1. Openness – imaginative, curious
  2. Conscientiousness – organized, responsible
  3. Extraversion – sociable, energetic
  4. Agreeableness – kind, cooperative
  5. Neuroticism – emotional instability

C. Psychoanalytic Approach (Freud)

Freud explained personality through unconscious motives, conflicts, and childhood experiences.

1. Structure of Personality

• Id – pleasure principle, biological urges
• Ego – reality principle, mediator
• Superego – moral principles

2. Levels of Consciousness

• Conscious
• Preconscious
• Unconscious

3. Defense Mechanisms

Used by ego to reduce anxiety:

• Repression
• Projection
• Rationalization
• Denial
• Regression
• Sublimation

D. Neo-Freudian Approaches

1. Carl Jung

• Collective unconscious, archetypes.

2. Alfred Adler

• Social interest, striving for superiority.

3. Karen Horney

• Basic anxiety, cultural factors.

E. Humanistic Approach

1. Carl Rogers

• Self-concept is central.
• Healthy personality requires:
  • Unconditional positive regard
  • Congruence
  • Empathy

2. Abraham Maslow

• Hierarchy of needs → self-actualization at top.

F. Behavioural Approach

• Personality is shaped by learning and conditioning.
• Watson, Skinner → reinforcement, punishment.

G. Social Learning Approach (Bandura)

• Personality develops through observational learning, modeling.
• Reciprocal determinism (interaction between person, behavior, environment).

H. Cultural Approach

• Personality is shaped by cultural values, social practices, customs, norms.

7. Assessment of Personality

Personality assessment means measuring psychological characteristics using various tools.

1. Objective Tests

• Standardized questionnaires
• Scored quantitatively
• Examples:
  • Eysenck Personality Questionnaire
  • 16 PF Test

Advantages

• Reliable, valid
• Easy scoring
• Quick administration

2. Projective Tests

Reveal unconscious feelings and motives.

Examples:

• Rorschach Inkblot Test
• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
• Draw-A-Person Test

Advantages

• Useful for diagnosing psychological issues
• Provides rich qualitative data

3. Behavioural Analysis

• Observation of behavior in natural situations.
• Used in clinical and educational settings.

4. Interviews

• Structured or unstructured
• Helps understand personality through communication.

5. Self-Report Measures

• Individuals describe their own behavior and traits.
• Includes questionnaires and inventories.

8. Conclusion

• Self and personality are central concepts in understanding human behavior.
• Self includes personal and social identity, self-esteem, self-concept, self-efficacy, and self-regulation.
• Culture influences how individuals define themselves and behave socially.
• Personality reflects consistent patterns of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
• Different approaches—type, trait, psychoanalytic, humanistic, behavioral, and social learning—give a comprehensive understanding of personality development.
• Personality assessment helps identify strengths, weaknesses, and psychological functioning.
• A clear understanding of self and personality promotes personal growth, adjustment, healthy relationships, and overall well-being.