PSYCHOLOGY – CLASS 12 (CBSE)

1. Introduction

• Human beings share similarities, but they also differ widely in their characteristics, abilities, and behaviors.
• These differences in thinking, intelligence, aptitude, personality, attitudes, interests, and emotional patterns are known as psychological attributes.
• Psychology aims to understand how and why individuals differ, and how these differences affect learning, performance, personality development, and adjustment.
• Variations in psychological attributes help explain why:
  • Two people in the same situation behave differently.
  • People learn at different speeds.
  • Some excel in creativity while others excel in practical skills.
  • Some show high emotional control while others are vulnerable to stress.
• Psychological attributes help identify a person’s strengths and weaknesses, enabling teachers, counselors, and psychologists to help individuals grow.
• Major psychological attributes studied:
  • Intelligence
  • Aptitude
  • Creativity
  • Personality
  • Values and Interests
  • Emotional Competence
• These attributes help in understanding human functioning, predicting behavior, and guiding educational and vocational choices.

2. Individual Differences in Human Functioning

• Individual differences refer to the distinct and unique characteristics that differentiate one person from another.
• These differences exist because of both:
  • Heredity (genetic factors)
  • Environment (family, culture, education, society)

Causes of Individual Differences

1. Genetic Factors
   • Inherited traits from parents such as intelligence potential, temperament, physical features.
   • Some cognitive abilities have a genetic basis.
2. Environmental Factors
   • Family background, parenting style, schooling, peer group, culture, economic and social conditions.
   • Learning experiences shape abilities.
3. Cultural Factors
   • Culture defines values, norms, skills considered important.
   • Leads to cultural variations in intelligence, behavior, and interests.
4. Physical Factors
   • Physical health, nutrition, disabilities influence performance.
   • Chronic illness may limit functioning.
5. Social Factors
   • Opportunities, rewards, roles, life experiences contribute to personality differences.

Areas of Individual Differences

• Cognitive differences – intelligence, memory, problem-solving ability.
• Personality differences – introversion, extroversion, emotional stability.
• Motivational differences – need for achievement, need for affiliation.
• Interests and values – preferences for activities and beliefs.
• Emotional differences – emotional control, sensitivity, empathy.
• Creative abilities – originality, imagination, divergent thinking.

Educational Importance of Individual Differences

• Helps teachers plan differentiated instruction.
• Facilitates personalized learning and guidance.
• Helps identify children with special needs, giftedness, or learning difficulties.

3. Assessment of Psychological Attributes

• Assessment refers to the measurement and evaluation of psychological characteristics using structured tools.
• Purpose:
  • Understand individual strengths/weaknesses
  • Predict performance
  • Provide counseling
  • Select suitable candidates for jobs or education

Characteristics of Psychological Assessment

1. Standardization – uniform procedures for testing.
2. Reliability – consistency of results over time.
3. Validity – accuracy of what the test claims to measure.
4. Objectivity – scoring free from personal bias.
5. Norms – average scores for comparison with other individuals.

Types of Psychological Tests

1. Intelligence Tests
   • Measures mental ability.
   • Example: Binet-Simon test, Wechsler scales.
2. Aptitude Tests
   • Measures potential to learn or succeed in a specific area.
3. Personality Tests
   • Assesses traits and behavior patterns.
   • Objective tests, inventories, projective tests.
4. Achievement Tests
   • Measures what a person has already learned.
5. Creativity Tests
   • Measures divergent thinking, originality, fluency.
6. Interest Inventories
   • Measures preferences for different activities or fields.

Observation Method

• Naturalistic or controlled.
• Used to study behavior in real situations.

Interview Method

• Face-to-face interaction between interviewer and person.
• Helps understand experiences, emotions, motivations.

Self-Report Measures

• Questionnaires, personality inventories where individuals report their behavior.

4. Intelligence

• Intelligence is one of the most important psychological attributes.
• It refers to the global capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively.
• According to Wechsler, intelligence is “the global and aggregate capacity of the individual to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment.”
• Intelligence helps in:
  • Problem-solving
  • Learning
  • Adaptation
  • Decision-making
  • Understanding complex ideas

Nature of Intelligence

• Multidimensional – involves various abilities like memory, language, reasoning.
• Dynamic – can change with learning and experience.
• Develops throughout life – especially during childhood.
• Influenced by both heredity and environment.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

• Developed by William Stern.
• IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) × 100

Categories:

• IQ 130 and above – Gifted
• IQ 90–109 – Average
• IQ below 70 – Intellectually disabled

5. Theories of Intelligence

1. Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory

• Proposed General factor (g) – common to all mental tasks.
• Specific factor (s) – specific to particular tasks.
• Intelligence = g + s
• Emphasizes that g-factor determines overall intelligence.

2. Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities

• Intelligence is composed of seven primary mental abilities:
  • Verbal comprehension
  • Numerical ability
  • Spatial relations
  • Memory
  • Reasoning
  • Perceptual speed
  • Word fluency

3. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

• Proposed 8 independent intelligences:
  • Linguistic
  • Logical-mathematical
  • Musical
  • Spatial
  • Bodily-kinesthetic
  • Interpersonal
  • Intrapersonal
  • Naturalistic
• Emphasizes cultural and contextual factors.

4. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Three components:

1. Analytical intelligence – problem-solving, reasoning.
2. Creative intelligence – ability to generate new ideas.
3. Practical intelligence – adapting to environment.

5. Emotional Intelligence (EI) – Daniel Goleman

• Ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively.
• Components:
  • Self-awareness
  • Empathy
  • Self-regulation
  • Motivation
  • Social skills
• EI helps in leadership, teamwork, stress handling, relationships.

6. Individual Differences in Intelligence

Factors Influencing Intelligence

1. Heredity
   • Sets potential limits.
   • Twin studies show high correlation in intelligence.
2. Environment
   • Nutrition, schooling, family, socio-economic factors affect IQ.
3. Culture
   • Defines skills considered important.
4. Experience and Practice
   • Cognitive stimulation improves intelligence.

Classification of Individuals Based on IQ

• Intellectually Gifted
  • High IQ, good problem-solving skills, creativity, leadership.
• Average Intelligence
  • Majority of population, capable of normal learning.
• Intellectually Disabled
  • IQ below 70
  • Difficulty in adaptive behavior

7. Culture and Intelligence

• Intelligence is shaped by cultural values and expectations.
• Western cultures emphasize analytical ability and reasoning.
• Asian cultures emphasize social harmony, wisdom, and practical knowledge.
• Some cultures value community responsibility, others value individual achievement.
• Intelligence tests must be culture-fair so that they do not favor any particular cultural group.

Culture-Fair Tests

• Designed to minimize cultural bias
• Focus on non-verbal items
• Example: Raven’s Progressive Matrices

8. Creativity

• Creativity is the ability to produce ideas that are novel, original, and useful.
• It involves divergent thinking, not just logical reasoning.
• Creative individuals:
  • Think differently
  • Are imaginative
  • See connections others miss
  • Are curious and open to experiences

Components of Creativity

1. Originality – uniqueness of ideas.
2. Fluency – number of ideas generated.
3. Flexibility – variety of ideas.
4. Elaboration – ability to expand ideas.

Stages of Creative Thinking

1. Preparation
2. Incubation
3. Illumination
4. Verification

Characteristics of Creative Persons

• Independent thinking
• Sensitivity to problems
• High imagination
• Non-conformity
• Persistence
• Self-confidence

Assessment of Creativity

• Tests of divergent thinking
• Creative writing/drawing tasks
• Personality assessment

9. Conclusion

• Psychological attributes such as intelligence, personality, aptitude, interest, and creativity vary widely among individuals.
• These variations arise due to heredity, environment, culture, and life experiences.
• Assessing psychological attributes helps understand human functioning and provides guidance for education, career, and personal development.
• Theories of intelligence and creativity highlight that human potential is multidimensional, and success depends on a combination of analytical, practical, emotional, and creative abilities.
• Understanding differences helps build inclusive learning environments and supports the growth of each individual.