🧭 Chapter 2: Contemporary Centres of Power (Class 12 Political Science – Course A)

🔹 Introduction

1. After the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991, the world became unipolar with the USA as the only superpower.
2. However, over time, new centres of power emerged in different regions that began to balance U.S. dominance.
3. These new powers included the European Union (EU), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), China, and India.
4. Each of these centres developed strong economic, political, and military influence on global affairs.
5. The rise of regional and economic organizations transformed the global power structure from unipolarity to multipolarity.

🟩 1. European Union (EU)

🌍 Formation and Background

1. The European Union originated from the idea of preventing future wars in Europe after World War II.
2. The first step was the European Economic Community (EEC), created by the Treaty of Rome (1957).
3. The Maastricht Treaty (1992) formally established the European Union (EU).
4. The EU aimed to create an integrated political and economic union among European countries.
5. Its main institutions are the European Parliament, European Commission, European Council, and Court of Justice.

⚙️ Objectives of the EU

1. Promote peace, stability, and economic progress.
2. Establish a single market with free movement of goods, services, capital, and people.
3. Create a common foreign and security policy.
4. Encourage cooperation in justice, home affairs, and environmental protection.
5. Develop a single currency (Euro) and coordinate economic policies.

💶 The Eurozone and Economic Integration

1. In 1999, the Euro (€) was introduced as a common currency by 11 member states.
2. The Euro aimed to eliminate currency exchange problems and promote trade within Europe.
3. Today, more than 19 countries use the Euro, forming the Eurozone.
4. The EU collectively forms one of the largest economies in the world, comparable to the United States.
5. Germany, France, and Italy are the main contributors to the EU’s economy.

🛡️ Military and Political Influence

1. The EU has developed a Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) to deal with international issues.
2. Although it depends on NATO for collective defense, the EU also conducts peacekeeping and humanitarian missions.
3. The Lisbon Treaty (2007) strengthened EU’s political structure by creating positions like the High Representative for Foreign Affairs.
4. The EU promotes democracy, human rights, and rule of law worldwide.
5. It uses soft power through aid, diplomacy, and trade rather than military aggression.

💡 Significance of the European Union

1. The EU acts as a major economic power with strong industrial and technological bases.
2. It influences global trade through negotiations with other countries.
3. EU countries combined have a larger GDP than the USA.
4. It is a political model of cooperation, balancing sovereignty and integration.
5. The EU also represents a social model emphasizing welfare, equality, and environmental sustainability.

⚖️ Challenges Before the EU

1. Internal divisions: Economic disparity between Northern and Southern Europe.
2. Brexit (2020): The exit of the United Kingdom reduced its political and economic strength.
3. Migration crisis and refugee issues created social tensions.
4. Rise of nationalism in some member states challenges unity.
5. Balancing between U.S. alliance and independent global stance is a constant struggle.

🧭 Conclusion on EU

1. The European Union has emerged as a model of regional integration.
2. Despite internal challenges, it continues to play a vital role in shaping world politics and economy.
3. It represents a non-military superpower based on cooperation, democracy, and economic stability.

🟩 2. Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

🌏 Formation and Background

1. ASEAN was founded on 8 August 1967 by five countries — Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand.
2. The aim was to promote political stability, economic growth, and cultural cooperation in the region.
3. Today, ASEAN has 10 member countries, including Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia.
4. Its headquarters is in Jakarta, Indonesia.
5. ASEAN represents a population of over 650 million people and is one of the fastest-growing regions in the world.

⚙️ Objectives of ASEAN

1. To accelerate economic growth, social progress, and cultural development.
2. To maintain regional peace and stability.
3. To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in economic, social, cultural, and technical fields.
4. To promote Southeast Asia as a zone of peace, freedom, and neutrality.
5. To develop partnerships with other regional and global organizations.

💰 Economic Cooperation

1. In 1992, ASEAN created the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA) to encourage regional trade.
2. Tariffs on intra-ASEAN trade were reduced to promote economic growth.
3. ASEAN has signed multiple free trade agreements (FTAs) with China, Japan, South Korea, India, Australia, and New Zealand.
4. It has become the 5th largest economy in the world.
5. The region attracts foreign investment due to cheap labor and a growing market.

🕊️ Political and Security Role

1. ASEAN promotes dialogue, peace, and non-interference in each other’s internal affairs.
2. The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) was established in 1994 for security cooperation in the Asia-Pacific.
3. ASEAN plays a vital role in managing conflicts such as the South China Sea dispute.
4. It emphasizes consensus-based decision-making rather than confrontation.
5. The “ASEAN Way” focuses on diplomacy, patience, and respect for sovereignty.

💪 Cultural and Social Cooperation

1. ASEAN promotes people-to-people connections through student exchange, tourism, and cultural events.
2. It celebrates ASEAN Day on 8th August every year.
3. There is increasing cooperation in health, disaster management, and education.
4. Initiatives like ASEAN Smart Cities Network encourage innovation and technology sharing.
5. The goal is to build a shared identity and unity in diversity.

⚖️ Challenges Before ASEAN

1. Economic inequality among member nations.
2. Political instability in countries like Myanmar.
3. Lack of a strong central authority.
4. Dependence on external powers like China and the U.S.
5. Internal disagreements on security issues such as the South China Sea.

🧭 Conclusion on ASEAN

1. ASEAN symbolizes regional unity and cooperation in Asia.
2. Its success lies in gradual integration and mutual respect.
3. Though it faces challenges, ASEAN is now recognized as a centre of power in the Indo-Pacific region.

🟩 3. The Rise of the Chinese Economy

🇨🇳 Background

1. China was once a closed and communist economy under Mao Zedong.
2. After 1978, under Deng Xiaoping, China introduced major economic reforms.
3. The policy of “Open Door” and “Four Modernizations” transformed China.
4. The focus was on agriculture, industry, defense, and science & technology.
5. These reforms opened China to world trade and investment.

💹 Economic Transformation

1. China shifted from a command economy to a market-oriented economy.
2. Special Economic Zones (SEZs) like Shenzhen and Shanghai were created to attract foreign investment.
3. The government encouraged private entrepreneurship while retaining control over key sectors.
4. Rapid industrialization made China the world’s factory.
5. Today, China is the second-largest economy in the world, after the USA.

📈 Social and Infrastructural Development

1. Massive investments were made in roads, railways, and urban housing.
2. Millions were lifted out of poverty in just three decades.
3. Literacy and life expectancy increased sharply.
4. China also focused on technology, space research, and digital industries.
5. Companies like Huawei, Alibaba, and Tencent became global brands.

🛡️ Military and Political Strength

1. China modernized its military under the People’s Liberation Army (PLA).
2. It developed nuclear weapons and advanced missile systems.
3. China asserts control over the South China Sea and border areas.
4. It plays a major role in international organizations like the UN, WTO, and BRICS.
5. China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) links Asia, Europe, and Africa through trade routes.

⚖️ Challenges for China

1. Income inequality between rural and urban areas.
2. Environmental pollution due to over-industrialization.
3. Human rights concerns and censorship.
4. Aging population due to the one-child policy.
5. Trade tensions with the United States and neighboring countries.

🧭 Conclusion on China

1. China’s rise marks the most significant shift in global power since the Cold War.
2. Its combination of state control and market reforms became a unique model.
3. Despite internal challenges, China continues to shape the 21st-century world economy and politics.

🟩 4. India–China Relations

🇮🇳🤝🇨🇳 Historical Background

1. India and China share a long civilizational history and cultural ties through Buddhism.
2. Diplomatic relations were established in 1950, soon after India’s independence.
3. The slogan “Hindi-Chini Bhai Bhai” represented early friendship.
4. However, relations soured after the 1962 border war, where China occupied Aksai Chin.
5. Despite tensions, both nations have maintained diplomatic engagement.

⚙️ Areas of Cooperation

1. Trade and Economy:
   • China is India’s largest trading partner.
   • Bilateral trade exceeds $100 billion annually.
   • Cooperation in manufacturing, infrastructure, and technology.
2. Multilateral Platforms:
   • Both nations are members of BRICS, SCO, and G20.
   • They cooperate on global issues like climate change and terrorism.
3. Cultural Exchanges:
   • Educational and cultural delegations encourage people-to-people contact.
   • Tourism and student exchange programs continue to grow.
4. Regional Stability:
   • Both countries play key roles in maintaining peace in Asia.

⚔️ Areas of Conflict

1. Border Disputes:
   • The Line of Actual Control (LAC) remains disputed, especially in Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh.
   • Clashes like Galwan Valley (2020) intensified tensions.
2. Tibet and Dalai Lama:
   • India’s asylum to the Dalai Lama is a sensitive issue for China.
3. Trade Imbalance:
   • India imports more from China than it exports, causing a large trade deficit.
4. Strategic Rivalry:
   • China’s close ties with Pakistan and projects like CPEC are viewed with suspicion by India.
   • India opposes the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) for crossing disputed territory.
5. Geopolitical Competition:
   • Both nations compete for influence in the Indian Ocean and Indo-Pacific region.

🧭 Current Status

1. Both nations continue dialogue through diplomatic and military channels.
2. Economic cooperation persists despite political rivalry.
3. India focuses on self-reliance (“Atmanirbhar Bharat”) and strengthening alliances.
4. The relationship remains complex — a mix of competition and cooperation.
5. Future stability depends on peaceful negotiation and trust-building.

🟩 5. Conclusion

1. The post-Cold War world has evolved into a multipolar system.
2. European Union, ASEAN, China, and India are now key players in global politics.
3. These centres of power represent diversity in governance and development models — from liberal democracy to state capitalism.
4. Regional organizations and emerging economies have reduced the dominance of a single superpower.
5. The balance of power in the 21st century depends on cooperation, dialogue, and sustainable development rather than military might.
6. Thus, Contemporary Centres of Power symbolize a world moving toward shared leadership and global interdependence.