Author name: Alka Jaiswal

1. Introduction Diversity is due to varied climate, relief, and soil conditions. 2. Factors Affecting Natural Vegetation 2.1 Relief 2.2 Climate 2.3 Ecosystem 3. Types of Vegetation in India India’s vegetation is classified into five major types: 3.1 Tropical Evergreen Forests 3.2 Tropical Deciduous Forests 3.3 Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs 3.4 Montane Forests 3.5

1. Introduction India’s climate is monsoonal, influenced by multiple factors like location, relief, winds, and the Himalayas. 2. Factors Affecting Climate of India India’s climate is controlled by a complex set of factors: 2.1 Latitude 2.2 Altitude 2.3 Pressure and Wind Systems Important wind systems: 2.4 Distance from the Sea 2.5 Ocean Currents 2.6 Relief

Introduction The drainage system of India is controlled by: 1. Drainage Patterns Rivers form different patterns depending on slope, rock structure, and topography: 2. The Himalayan Rivers 2.1 Characteristics 2.2 Major Himalayan River Systems (A) The Indus River System (B) The Ganga River System (C) The Brahmaputra River System 3. The Peninsular Rivers 3.1 Characteristics

Introduction India’s landmass shows great physical diversity. India’s physical features are broadly grouped into six major divisions: 1. Geological Structure of India India’s physical features are a result of plate tectonics. Thus, India’s relief reflects both old and young landforms. 2. The Himalayan Mountains 2.1 General Features 2.2 Longitudinal Divisions 2.3 Regional Divisions of Himalayas

Introduction India, one of the world’s oldest civilizations, is a land of diverse geography, culture, and history. Its size and location have always shaped its destiny.Situated in the south-central part of Asia, India is unique in many ways – its massive area, large population, rich resources, and strategic geographical position make it significant not only

1. Democratic Rights 2. Why Democratic Rights Are Important 3. Types of Democratic Rights in India India’s Constitution provides six main rights, often referred to as Fundamental Rights: 3.1 Right to Equality (Articles 14–18) Importance: Ensures social justice and removes discrimination. 3.2 Right to Freedom (Articles 19–22) Importance: Guarantees individual liberty and political participation. 3.3

1. Political Institutions 2. Main Democratic Institutions in India 2.1 Legislature (Parliament) 2.2 Executive 2.3 Judiciary 2.4 Political Parties 2.5 Media and Civil Society 3. How Institutions Work Together 4. Challenges in the Working of Institutions 5. Importance of Working Institutions 6. Conclusion Quick Revision Points

1. Elections Key Idea: 2. Why Elections Are Important 3. Key Features of Elections in India 4. Political Parties 4.1 Functions of Political Parties 4.2 Types of Political Parties 5. How Elections Work in India 5.1 Electoral System 5.2 Steps in an Election 6. Challenges in Electoral Politics 7. Importance of Political Awareness 8. Reforms

1. What is Constitution? 2. Why Do We Need a Constitution? 3. Making of the Indian Constitution 3.1 Historical Background 3.2 Constituent Assembly 3.3 Adoption 3.4 Leadership 4. Guiding Values of the Indian Constitution 4.1 Experiences of Struggle 4.2 Influence of World Events 4.3 Objective Resolution (1946) 5. The Preamble The Preamble is the introduction

1. Democracy 2. Meaning of Democracy 3. Key Features of Democracy 4. Arguments Against Non-Democracy Such systems lack accountability, transparency, and equality. 5. Why Democracy? (Merits) 6. Limitations of Democracy Even though democracy has limitations, it is still better than all other forms of government because it ensures people’s participation. 7. Broader Meaning of Democracy

1. Food Security Key Idea: 2. What is Food Security? 3. Importance of Food Security 4. Food Production in India 5. Challenges to Food Security in India 5.1 Poverty 5.2 Unequal Distribution 5.3 Malnutrition 5.4 Natural Calamities 5.5 Population Growth 5.6 Storage and Wastage 6. Measures to Ensure Food Security 6.1 Public Distribution System (PDS)

1. Poverty 2. What is Poverty? 3. Extent of Poverty in India Key Facts: 4. Causes of Poverty 4.1 Economic Causes 4.2 Social Causes 4.3 Demographic Causes 4.4 Historical and Political Causes 5. Effects of Poverty 6. Government Measures to Reduce Poverty 6.1 Employment Programs 6.2 Poverty Alleviation Schemes 6.3 Education and Skill Development 6.4

1. People and Resources 2. Meaning of People as Resource 3. Importance of People as Resource 4. Human Development Factors 4.1 Education 4.2 Health 4.3 Skill Development 4.4 Employment 5. Population and Economic Development 5.1 People as an Asset 5.2 People as a Liability 6. People as Resource in India 7. Ways to Develop People

1. Palampur Village 2. Land in Palampur 3. Farming in Palampur 4. Crops Grown in Palampur 5. Non-Farm Activities 6. Role of Machines and Technology 7. Employment in Palampur 8. Importance of Market in Palampur 9. Summary of Rural Economy Lessons from Palampur 10. Key Terms Term Meaning Rabi Crop Grown in winter (wheat, barley)