Colonialism and the Countryside: Exploring Official Archives Introduction The expansion of British colonial rule in India transformed not only politics and economy but also the countryside, where the majority of Indians lived. The countryside became a site of contestation between peasants, landlords, moneylenders, and the colonial state. 1. Sources for Studying the Colonial Countryside π […]
Peasants, Zamindars and the State: Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire (c. 16thβ17th centuries) Introduction The Mughal Empire (16thβ17th centuries) was one of the most powerful empires in world history. At the heart of this empire was its agrarian economy, where the relationship between peasants, zamindars, and the state determined production, taxation, and social organization.
An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagar (c. 14th to 16th centuries) Introduction The city of Vijayanagar, literally meaning βCity of Victory,β emerged in the 14th century on the banks of the Tungabhadra River (modern Hampi, Karnataka). It was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire (1336β1565 CE), one of the greatest and most prosperous kingdoms in South India.
Bhakti-Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts (c. 8thβ18th centuries) Introduction Between the 8th and 18th centuries, India witnessed major changes in religious beliefs and practices. This was a period when: Together, Bhakti and Sufi traditions created a rich spiritual and cultural synthesis that shaped Indiaβs religious landscape for centuries. 1. Sources to
Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society (c. 10thβ17th Centuries) Introduction Between the 10th and 17th centuries, India witnessed: Travellers from across the world β Arabs, Persians, Central Asians, Chinese, and Europeans β visited the subcontinent. Their writings, often in the form of travelogues, memoirs, chronicles, and letters, provide unique perspectives on Indian society,
Thinkers, Beliefs and Buildings: Cultural Developments (c. 600 BCEβ600 CE) Introduction The period 600 BCEβ600 CE marks a profound transformation in Indiaβs intellectual, religious, and artistic life. This millennium witnessed: The theme βThinkers, Beliefs and Buildingsβ highlights how ideas shaped society and how architecture reflected faith in early India. 1. Sources of Cultural Developments π
Kingship, Caste and Class: Early Societies (c. 600 BCEβ600 CE) Introduction The period between 600 BCE and 600 CE was a formative era in the political, social, and cultural history of India. This millennium witnessed: The three themesβKingship, Caste, and Classβhelp us understand the ways in which power, society, and economy were organized during this
Kings, Farmers and Towns: Early States and Economies (c. 600 BCEβ600 CE) Introduction The period from 600 BCE to 600 CE marks a crucial phase in Indian history, characterized by the emergence of states, kingdoms, cities, agrarian expansion, trade, and socio-economic transformations. This millennium witnessed the formation of Mahajanapadas, the rise of the Mauryan Empire,
Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilization Introduction The Harappan Civilization, also called the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), was one of the worldβs earliest urban cultures, flourishing between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE across northwestern India and Pakistan. It extended over a vast region of about 1.3 million square kilometers, larger than Egypt or Mesopotamia.
Map Work (Identification and Labelling on the Political Map of India) Introduction Maps are one of the most powerful tools in geography. They are visual representations of the earthβs surface, enabling us to understand spatial distribution, patterns, and relationships among natural and man-made features. In the Indian school curriculum, map work forms an important component
Geographical Perspective on Selected Issues and Problems Introduction The interaction between man and environment has always shaped the geography of the world. Rapid growth of population, accelerated urbanization, industrialization, and globalization have created multiple environmental and socio-economic problems. These issues are not confined within political boundaries but have a spatial dimension, meaning they can be
International Trade Introduction Trade is as old as human civilization. From the Silk Route of ancient times to todayβs globalized markets, the exchange of goods, services, and ideas has played a central role in shaping societies. International trade refers to the exchange of commodities, capital, and services across international borders. Unlike domestic trade, which occurs
Transport and Communication Introduction Transport and communication are the lifelines of an economy. They link production centers with consumption areas, integrate markets, promote trade, enable cultural exchange, and ensure political unity. In a vast and diverse country like India, efficient transport and communication systems are essential for economic development, social integration, and national security. Transport
Planning and Sustainable Development in the Indian Context Introduction Planning is the systematic process of setting goals, identifying resources, and implementing strategies to achieve balanced socio-economic development. In a vast and diverse country like India, planning plays a vital role in reducing regional disparities, eradicating poverty, creating employment, and promoting sustainable growth. Since Independence in
Mineral and Energy Resources Introduction Minerals and energy are two of the most critical natural resources for human survival and economic development. Human civilization has advanced from the Stone Age to the Information Age primarily because of the discovery, utilization, and management of mineral and energy resources. From making tools in the prehistoric period to
Water Resources Introduction Water is one of the most vital natural resources on Earth. It is the foundation of life, covering about 71% of the planetβs surface, yet only 2.5% is fresh water, and less than 1% is easily accessible for human use. From quenching thirst to growing food, generating power, supporting industries, maintaining biodiversity,
Land Resources and Agriculture Introduction Land is one of the most precious natural resources available to humankind. It forms the foundation of all terrestrial life and provides the space, nutrients, and environment necessary for survival. Unlike other resources, land is finite; it cannot be increased by human effort. The importance of land becomes even more
Human Settlements (Class 12 Geography β CBSE, 2025β26) 1. Introduction π Definition: Human settlement refers to the process of grouping of people and their dwellings, along with the associated infrastructure, to carry out their day-to-day activities. 2. Evolution of Settlements Settlements have developed through a long historical process: 3. Types of Human Settlements Settlements can
Population: Distribution, Density, Growth, and Composition 1. Introduction 2. Population Distribution 3. Population Density 4. Population Growth 5. Population Composition 6. Theories of Population Growth 7. Importance of Population Studies 8. Key Terms & Diagrams 9. Case Studies / Examples 10. Sample Answer Frames
Chapter 9 β Map Work (Identification of Features) CBSE Class 12 Geography (2025β26) π Introduction: Importance of Map Work Geography is not only about learning theories but also about visualizing space. A map is the most powerful tool in Geography because it represents location, distribution, and spatial patterns. In CBSE Class 12 Board Exam, map
π International Trade (Class 12 Geography β CBSE, 2025β26) 1. Introduction π Simple definition:International trade is the exchange of goods, services, and capital between countries across the world. 2. Importance of International Trade π‘ Example: India imports crude oil from the Gulf but exports IT services to USA and Europe. 3. Basis of International Trade
Transport, Communication and Trade (Class 12 Geography β Human Geography, CBSE 2025β26) 1. Introduction Geography is not only about studying land, people, and resources β it is also about how people connect with each other.This connection happens through Transport, Communication, and Trade. π Together, these three make the lifelines of human civilization, ensuring economic growth,
Tertiary and Quaternary Activities (Class 12 Geography β Human Geography: People and Economy) 1. Introduction Geography divides human activities into four main categories: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary. π Tertiary and Quaternary activities are also called βservice sectorβ activities because they do not produce goods but provide services essential for modern economy. 2. Meaning of
Secondary Activities (Class 12 Geography β CBSE, 2025β26) 1. Introduction Geography is not just about land and people, but also about how humans transform natural resources into useful products. π Secondary Activities = All activities related to manufacturing, processing, construction, and industries. Examples: π Secondary activities form the backbone of economic development, because they: 2.
Primary Activities (Class 12 Geography β CBSE, 2025β26) 1. Introduction π Primary Activities are the most basic and ancient. They involve production close to nature. Examples: Agriculture, fishing, forestry, mining, hunting, gathering, pastoralism. 2. Meaning of Primary Activities Definition:Primary activities are economic activities that rely directly on the exploitation of natural resources for production. 3.
Human Development (Class 12 Geography β CBSE, 2025β26) 1. Introduction π Focus: expanding choices, improving quality of life, ensuring dignity, equality, and sustainability. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) introduced the Human Development Index (HDI) in 1990. It measures development by combining income, education, and health. 2. Meaning of Human Development Definition (by UNDP):Human development
The World Population: Distribution, Density, and Growth (Class 12 Geography β CBSE, 2025β26) 1. Introduction π Without population, resources, environment, and development have little meaning. 2. Distribution of World Population World population is unevenly distributed β some regions are very crowded while others are nearly empty. (i) Global Patterns (ii) Factors Affecting Distribution π Exam
