PRIMARY ACTIVITIES (Class 12 Geography – Course A, Chapter 4)

1. INTRODUCTION TO PRIMARY ACTIVITIES

1. Meaning of Primary Activities
   • Primary activities are occupations that involve the extraction and utilization of natural resources.
   • These activities depend directly on the physical environment such as land, water, climate, vegetation, and minerals.
   • Examples: hunting, gathering, pastoralism, agriculture, fishing, forestry, and mining.
2. Characteristics
   • Performed close to the natural resource base.
   • Labour-intensive in developing countries.
   • Low level of technology in traditional societies.
   • Provide basic raw materials for secondary and tertiary sectors.
   • Highly influenced by physical and climatic conditions.
3. Importance
   • Basis of early human civilization.
   • Provides essential goods like food, fuel, fibre, minerals.
   • Creates employment for a large population in developing nations.
   • Determines settlement patterns and economic development.

2. HUNTING AND GATHERING

A. Definition

• Hunting refers to capturing and killing wild animals for food, clothing, tools, and trade.
• Gathering means collecting plant products like fruits, nuts, roots, leaves, medicinal herbs, and small animals from surrounding forests.

B. Features of Hunting and Gathering

1. Oldest form of human occupation
   • Practiced since the Stone Age and continues in some tribal communities.
2. Dependence on Nature
   • Entirely dependent on local flora and fauna.
   • No use of advanced technology.
3. Nomadic lifestyle
   • Groups move from place to place in search of food.
4. Low productivity
   • Output is limited because it supports only small populations.
   • Uncertain food supply.
5. Use of simple tools
   • Tools like bows, arrows, spears, traps, digging sticks.
6. Indigenous Knowledge
   • Deep understanding of forests, animals, seasons, and survival techniques.

C. Areas Where It Exists Today

• Tropical forests of Amazon Basin
• African Congo Basin
• Northern Canada and Alaska
• Australian deserts (Aboriginal tribes)
• Arctic regions (Inuit people)

D. Decline of Hunting and Gathering

1. Forest destruction
2. Wildlife depletion
3. Strict government regulations
4. Modern food production systems
5. Spread of agriculture and settlements

3. PASTORALISM

A. Meaning

• Pastoralism refers to the rearing of animals on natural pastures for food, milk, wool, hides, and transport.

B. Characteristics

1. Dependence on natural grasslands
   • Animals feed on natural vegetation.
2. Seasonal movement
   • Movement of herders and flocks in search of pasture is common.
   • This movement is called transhumance.
3. Simple tools and practices
   • Minimal use of machinery.
4. Large variety of animals
   • Sheep, goats, yaks, camels, cattle, horses, reindeer, etc.

C. Types of Pastoralism

1. Nomadic Pastoralism

• Herders move from one region to another without permanent settlements.
• Highly influenced by climate and availability of pastures.

Features:

• Community-based grazing
• Low population density
• Traditional lifestyle
• Occurs in arid, semi-arid, mountainous regions

Examples:

• Maasai of East Africa
• Bedouins of Arabian Desert
• Kirghiz of Central Asia
• Gujjars and Bakarwals of Himalayan region

2. Sedentary or Semi-Nomadic Pastoralism

• People live in a fixed settlement and raise animals nearby.
• Animals are taken to grazing areas daily.

Examples:

• Dairy ranches of Europe
• Mixed cropping + cattle raising in North America

D. Importance of Pastoralism

1. Provides meat, milk, wool, hides
2. Supports rural livelihoods
3. Helps utilize dry and tough landscapes
4. Associated with cultural traditions

4. COMMERCIAL LIVESTOCK REARING

A. Concept

• It is a modern, profit-oriented form of livestock farming conducted on large ranches.
• Uses advanced technology, selective breeding, scientific feeding, and efficient management.

B. Characteristics

1. Large landholdings
   • Ranches spread across thousands of hectares.
2. Specialized animal rearing
   • Focus on one or two species like cattle, sheep, pigs, or poultry.
3. Mechanized operations
   • Use of machines for feeding, milking, breeding, cleaning, and transport.
4. High capital investment
   • Requires advanced machinery, veterinary care, and commercial inputs.
5. Market-oriented
   • Produce is meant for sale to urban markets, export houses, or processing factories.

C. Regions Where It Is Common

• Argentina and Uruguay (Pampas grasslands)
• USA (Western states)
• Australia (Sheep stations)
• New Zealand (Wool and dairy farming)
• South Africa

D. Advantages

1. Stable supply of meat and dairy products
2. Efficient production
3. High profitability
4. Generates export earnings

E. Challenges

1. Disease outbreaks
2. Environmental degradation
3. High operational cost
4. Animal welfare concerns

5. AGRICULTURE (GENERAL INTRODUCTION)

A. Meaning

• Agriculture is the cultivation of crops and the rearing of animals to produce food, fibre, and raw materials.

B. Importance

1. Provides food for global population
2. Employs a large share of the workforce
3. Supplies raw materials to industries
4. Influences economic development
5. Shapes cultural practices and settlements

C. Factors Affecting Agriculture

1. Climate – temperature, rainfall, humidity
2. Soil – fertility, structure, depth
3. Relief – flatness, slope
4. Irrigation availability
5. Technology
6. Labour supply
7. Capital and inputs
8. Government policies
9. Market access

6. INTENSIVE SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE

A. Meaning

• A form of agriculture practiced in densely populated regions, using small plots of land, high labour, and simple tools, primarily to feed the farmer’s family.

B. Features

1. Small landholdings
   • Due to high population pressure.
2. High labour input
   • Family labour is commonly used.
3. High cropping intensity
   • Multiple cropping in a year.
4. Use of traditional techniques
   • Low use of machines.
5. Dependence on monsoon
   • Irrigation is common but traditional areas rely on rainfall.
6. Crop types
   • Rice, wheat, maize, pulses, vegetables.

C. Regions

• India, Bangladesh, China, Vietnam, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea.

D. Advantages

• Maximum use of land
• Ensures food security locally
• Supports large populations

E. Limitations

• Low productivity
• Soil degradation
• Farmer poverty
• Overdependence on climate

7. EXTENSIVE COMMERCIAL GRAIN CULTIVATION

A. Meaning

• Large-scale cultivation of grain crops for commercial sale using modern machinery on vast farms.

B. Characteristics

1. Huge farms ranging from 100–1000 hectares.
2. High mechanization (tractors, harvesters).
3. Low labour requirement.
4. Mostly monoculture (single crop).
5. Commercial, export-oriented production.

C. Major Crops

• Wheat, maize, barley, oats.

D. Regions

• USA (Prairies)
• Canada
• Australia
• Argentina
• Ukraine (Steppe region)
• Russia (Black Earth region)

E. Advantages

• High output
• Efficient use of machines
• Low labour cost
• Highly profitable

F. Problems

• Soil erosion
• Market dependency
• Climate risks
• Monoculture reduces biodiversity

8. MIXED FARMING

A. Meaning

• A farming system that integrates crop cultivation with livestock rearing on the same farm.

B. Features

1. Dual income sources – crops and animals.
2. Efficient land use – crop residues feed animals; manure fertilizes fields.
3. Balanced agriculture – spreads risk due to seasonal changes.
4. Medium-sized farms – neither too small nor extremely large.
5. Use of both labour and machinery.

C. Crops and Animals

• Wheat, barley, maize, fodder crops
• Dairy cattle, pigs, poultry, sheep

D. Regions

• Western and Central Europe
• Eastern USA
• Russia
• New Zealand
• South Africa
• Parts of India

E. Advantages

1. Risk reduction
2. Efficient recycling of nutrients
3. High farm income
4. Sustainable farming practice

F. Limitations

1. Requires capital
2. Requires management skill
3. Labour intensive

9. DAIRY FARMING

A. Meaning

• Specialized agriculture focused on the production of milk and its products such as butter, cheese, yogurt, and ghee.

B. Characteristics

1. Highly capital-intensive
   • Needs milking machines, cooling systems, veterinary care.
2. Scientific breeding practices
   • High-yield cattle breeds like Holstein Friesian, Jersey, Sahiwal, Gir.
3. Requirement of fodder and water
   • Needs regular supply of fodder crops and clean water.
4. Proximity to markets
   • Milk is perishable; therefore farms are located near urban centers.
5. Use of technology
   • Automated milking, chilling plants, pasteurization units.

C. Regions

• North-Western Europe (Denmark, Netherlands, UK)
• USA and Canada
• Northern India (Punjab, Haryana, UP)
• New Zealand
• Australia

D. Advantages

1. Daily cash flow
2. High nutritional value products
3. Supports rural economy
4. Generates employment

E. Problems

1. High investment
2. Disease outbreak risk
3. Poor transport networks in developing nations
4. Feed cost fluctuations

10. FACTORS AFFECTING MINING ACTIVITY

A. Geological Factors

1. Mineral availability – mining occurs only where minerals exist.
2. Ore quality – rich, high-grade ores are more profitable.
3. Depth of deposits – shallow deposits are easier to mine.

B. Physical Factors

1. Topography – flat land favours mining; mountains increase cost.
2. Climate – extreme weather reduces efficiency.
3. Water availability – essential for processing minerals.

C. Economic Factors

1. Capital investment – mining requires huge funds.
2. Transport facilities – roads, railways, ports.
3. Market demand – high demand encourages mining.
4. Technology – modern equipment improves output.

D. Social and Political Factors

1. Labour availability
2. Government policies
3. Environmental laws
4. Land acquisition issues
5. Community support

E. Environmental Concerns

1. Land degradation
2. Water pollution
3. Air pollution
4. Deforestation
5. Displacement of people

11. CONCLUSION

1. Primary activities form the foundation of human survival and economic progress.
2. They include hunting, gathering, pastoralism, livestock rearing, agriculture, forestry, fishing, and mining.
3. Over time, traditional practices have evolved into modern systems using technology and scientific methods.
4. Agriculture remains the dominant primary activity, supporting billions globally.
5. Mining and commercial livestock rearing contribute significantly to industrial growth.
6. However, sustainability, environmental protection, and efficient resource management must guide future development.
7. Balanced use of natural resources and technological advancement can ensure food security, economic stability, and a healthy environment.