HISTORY – CLASS 12 (COURSE B)

CHAPTER 1: THROUGH THE EYES OF TRAVELLERS

PERCEPTIONS OF SOCIETY (c. Tenth to Seventeenth Century)

1. Introduction

1. India attracted numerous travellers, scholars, and adventurers from the 10th to 17th centuries.
2. These visitors came from different regions — Central Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe.
3. Their writings provide valuable insights into Indian society, economy, culture, and politics of that time.
4. The accounts of travellers like Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta, and François Bernier are key sources for historians.
5. They observed India as outsiders, making their accounts both informative and subjective.
6. These works help historians understand how foreigners perceived Indian traditions, governance, religion, and daily life.

2. Al-Biruni and the Kitab-ul-Hind

(i) Background

1. Abu Rayhan Al-Biruni was born in 973 CE in Khwarizm (modern Uzbekistan).
2. He was a scholar of mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, medicine, and languages.
3. He came to India with Mahmud of Ghazni’s invasions in the early 11th century.
4. Al-Biruni stayed in India for about 13 years and learnt Sanskrit to understand Indian texts.

(ii) Kitab-ul-Hind

1. His book “Kitab-ul-Hind” (The Book of India) was written in Arabic.
2. It covered Indian philosophy, religion, society, science, and culture.
3. It was based on Sanskrit texts, personal observations, and discussions with learned Indians.
4. He compared Indian ideas with those of Greeks and other civilizations.

(iii) Objective and Approach

1. His aim was to present a scientific and objective account of Indian society.
2. He wanted to explain Indian culture to a foreign audience, mainly Arabic readers.
3. He was influenced by the Greek method of reasoning and comparative study.
4. He emphasized understanding another culture through sympathy and reason, not prejudice.

3. Making Sense of an Alien World: Al-Biruni and the Sanskritic Tradition

(i) Understanding Indian Society

1. Al-Biruni described India as a land of diverse customs and beliefs.
2. He found religious and social systems highly structured, especially the caste system.
3. He noted that Brahmins occupied the highest social position and were custodians of knowledge.
4. He wrote about the four varnas and their duties as described in the Dharmashastras.
5. He criticized the rigid separation of social groups and lack of mobility.

(ii) Views on Religion and Philosophy

1. He studied major Sanskrit texts such as the Vedas, Puranas, Bhagavad Gita, and works of Patanjali.
2. He admired India’s deep philosophical traditions but found it difficult to reconcile with Islamic monotheism.
3. He wrote that Indians were devoted to knowledge but too inward-looking, limiting contact with others.

(iii) Scientific and Cultural Observations

1. He was impressed with Indian mathematics and astronomy, which he compared to Greek achievements.
2. He documented Indian concepts of time, festivals, and rituals.
3. He appreciated Indian achievements in medicine, logic, and linguistics.

(iv) Al-Biruni’s Methodology

1. He used a scientific, objective, and comparative approach.
2. He collected data from texts and conversations rather than hearsay.
3. However, as a foreigner, he faced linguistic and cultural barriers.
4. Despite this, his work remains one of the most accurate studies of medieval Indian society.

4. Ibn Battuta’s Rihla

(i) Background

1. Ibn Battuta was a Moroccan traveller born in Tangier in 1304 CE.
2. He was a Qazi (Islamic judge), well-versed in Islamic law and theology.
3. He travelled widely — North Africa, Egypt, Arabia, Iran, Central Asia, India, Southeast Asia, and China.
4. He came to India during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq (Delhi Sultanate).
5. His travel account is called the “Rihla” (meaning “journey”).

(ii) Purpose and Nature of Rihla

1. Commissioned by the Sultan of Morocco to record his experiences.
2. Described geographical, cultural, and social diversity across countries.
3. His account is a mixture of factual observation and storytelling.
4. Offers a first-hand look at court life, urban society, and administration in India.

5. Ibn Battuta and the Excitement of the Unfamiliar

(i) Impressions of India

1. Ibn Battuta was fascinated by the wealth, variety, and beauty of India.
2. He found the climate, customs, and people exotic and surprising.
3. He described India as rich and densely populated, with many cities and villages.

(ii) Urban Life and Trade

1. He admired Indian cities like Delhi, Daulatabad, and Calicut for their prosperity and population.
2. He noted that trade thrived due to India’s strategic location between the East and West.
3. Merchants were wealthy, and markets were full of imported goods.

(iii) Administration and Justice

1. Ibn Battuta served as a Qazi (judge) in Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s court.
2. He found the Sultan’s rule efficient but harsh and unpredictable.
3. He observed a strongly centralized administration.
4. He also described punishments, espionage systems, and postal communication.

(iv) Social and Cultural Observations

1. He noted the variety of religious practices and festivals.
2. He found Hindu temples fascinating and full of rituals.
3. He was amazed by the position of women, especially those who had more freedom than in Islamic societies.
4. He mentioned slavery as a common feature in both households and markets.

(v) Journey Beyond India

1. After serving in India, Ibn Battuta travelled to the Maldives, Sri Lanka, and China.
2. His travels reveal the interconnected nature of the medieval world through trade, religion, and culture.

6. François Bernier – A Doctor with a Difference

(i) Background

1. François Bernier was a French physician and philosopher, born in 1620 CE.
2. He came to India in 1656 CE and stayed for about 12 years during the reign of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
3. He worked as a physician to Danishmand Khan, a noble at the Mughal court.
4. He also accompanied Prince Dara Shukoh and travelled widely across North India, Kashmir, and Bengal.

(ii) His Work

1. His travel accounts were published as “Travels in the Mughal Empire” in 1670.
2. His writings reflect European curiosity about the Orient and Mughal India.
3. He compared India with contemporary Europe to highlight contrasts.

7. Bernier and the “Degenerate” East

(i) European Context

1. During Bernier’s time, Europe was experiencing the Scientific Revolution and enlightenment thinking.
2. Europeans saw themselves as progressive and rational, contrasting with “backward” Asian societies.

(ii) Bernier’s Observations

1. He admired the grandeur of the Mughal court but criticized the lack of private property and liberty.
2. He argued that the Mughal Empire’s land system led to poverty and decline.
3. He compared the Mughal system unfavourably with European feudalism, where nobles owned hereditary estates.

(iii) View on Caste and Social Order

1. Bernier found the caste system rigid and oppressive.
2. He believed it prevented social mobility and economic growth.
3. He viewed Indian artisans and peasants as poor and overtaxed.

(iv) Bernier’s Bias

1. His views reflected Eurocentric biases, portraying India as static and inferior.
2. His accounts influenced European notions of Oriental despotism.
3. Later European thinkers used his writings to justify colonial intervention.

8. Women, Slaves, Sati, and Labourers

(i) Women in Society

1. Travellers recorded diverse conditions of women across regions and classes.
2. Ibn Battuta noted that women in certain areas, like Malabar, enjoyed social freedom and economic rights.
3. Al-Biruni observed that Indian society restricted women’s independence due to religious customs.

(ii) The Practice of Sati

1. Several travellers mentioned Sati, where a widow immolated herself on her husband’s pyre.
2. Al-Biruni and Bernier were critical of the practice, considering it inhumane.
3. However, they also noted that it was viewed by locals as an act of devotion and honour.

(iii) Slavery

1. Slavery was a part of social and economic life.
2. Slaves were used for domestic work, military service, and entertainment.
3. Ibn Battuta wrote about slave markets in India and the Islamic world.
4. Female slaves often worked as maids, dancers, or concubines.

(iv) Labourers and Artisans

1. Travellers described the hard life of peasants and craftsmen.
2. Despite poverty, Indian artisans were skilled in textiles, metalwork, and jewelry.
3. Bernier mentioned that Indian peasants were heavily taxed and lived under harsh landlords.

9. Comparing the Three Travellers

10. Historical Importance of Their Writings

1. Their accounts provide non-Indian perspectives on India’s past.
2. Help historians understand daily life, administration, and social customs.
3. They offer valuable details about urbanization, caste, trade, and gender relations.
4. They also reflect the interaction between India and the wider world.
5. Each traveller’s account must be read critically, considering personal bias and context.

11. Challenges for Historians

1. Travellers often misunderstood Indian traditions due to language and cultural differences.
2. Their interpretations were shaped by their own background, religion, and expectations.
3. Historians must corroborate their accounts with archaeological, textual, and inscriptional evidence.
4. Despite limitations, their works remain indispensable sources for medieval Indian history.

12. Conclusion

1. The writings of Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta, and François Bernier open windows into medieval India’s diverse, vibrant, and complex society.
2. Through their eyes, we see India’s intellectual depth, economic richness, and cultural diversity.
3. Al-Biruni’s analytical approach, Ibn Battuta’s vivid travelogue, and Bernier’s critical European lens together create a multi-dimensional portrait of India.
4. These travellers reveal not just India’s past but also the worldview of their own times.
5. Their works remind us that history is not only about kings and wars, but also about people, perceptions, and exchanges that shaped civilizations.