Nature, Types and Sources of Stress

Nature of Stress

• The term stress has been derived from the Latin word stringere, meaning to draw tight.
• In physics, it refers to the strain experienced by a physical object when pressure is applied.
• Hans Selye (1936) used the term to describe the body’s response to demands placed on it.
• Stress refers to the pattern of responses an organism makes to stimulus events that disturb its equilibrium and exceed its ability to cope.
• According to Lazarus and Folkman (1984), stress is “a particular relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well-being.”
• Stress is a dynamic process representing the interaction between the individual and the environment.
• It depends on cognitive appraisal — how an individual interprets or evaluates an event.
• Primary appraisal – assessing whether an event is positive, negative, or neutral.
• Secondary appraisal – evaluating one’s coping abilities and resources.
• Reappraisal – continuous re-evaluation of the situation and coping strategies.
• Moderate level of stress is beneficial (eustress), while excessive stress is harmful (distress).

Signs and Symptoms of Stress

• Stress affects an individual at physical, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral levels.

Physical Symptoms

• Increased heart rate, high blood pressure, headache, fatigue, disturbed sleep, loss of appetite.

Emotional Symptoms

• Anxiety, fear, irritability, anger, tension, depression.

Cognitive Symptoms

• Poor concentration, forgetfulness, indecisiveness, negative thinking.

Behavioral Symptoms

• Withdrawal from relationships, reduced performance, restlessness, and changes in eating or sleeping habits.

Types of Stress

Physical and Environmental Stress

• Caused by physical stressors such as injury, exhaustion, or extreme physical exertion.
• Environmental stressors include noise, pollution, crowding, climatic changes, and natural disasters.
• They directly affect the body and disturb normal functioning.

Psychological Stress

• Arises from internal sources such as frustration, conflicts, pressure, and insecurity.
• Frustration – when a goal-directed activity is blocked.
• Conflicts – when one must choose between incompatible goals:
• Approach–Approach Conflict – between two desirable goals.
• Avoidance–Avoidance Conflict – between two undesirable goals.
• Approach–Avoidance Conflict – when a goal has both positive and negative aspects.
• Pressure – arises when there are excessive expectations or demands to meet high standards.

Social Stress

• Arises out of one’s interaction with the social environment.
• Includes social discrimination, interpersonal conflicts, lack of social support, and loneliness.
• Rapid social change, competition, and economic problems also produce stress.

Sources of Stress

Life Events

• Major life changes requiring substantial adjustment, e.g., death of a loved one, divorce, illness, job loss, or marriage.
• Both positive and negative events cause stress as they demand adaptation.
• Measured by the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) by Holmes and Rahe (1967).

Hassles

• Minor daily irritations such as traffic jams, arguments, workload, or routine problems.
• Though small, their cumulative effect can lead to chronic stress.
• Frequent hassles are more closely linked to physical and psychological ill-health than major life events.

Traumatic Events

• Severe and prolonged stressors involving threat to life or safety, e.g., earthquakes, floods, fire, war, accidents, and assault.
• Can lead to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).
• Symptoms include re-experiencing the event, emotional numbness, sleep disturbances, and avoidance of reminders.

Effects of Stress on Psychological Functioning and Health

1. Emotional Effects

• Stress produces negative emotions like anxiety, fear, anger, and tension.
• Chronic stress can lead to helplessness, frustration, and depression.
• People may feel irritable, restless, or emotionally exhausted.
• High stress can reduce the ability to experience joy, satisfaction, or calmness.
• Emotional disturbances can affect relationships and motivation.

2. Physiological Effects

• Stress activates the autonomic nervous system and releases adrenaline and noradrenaline.
• Body reacts with increased heart rate, blood pressure, rapid breathing, and muscle tension.
• Short-term stress prepares the body for fight-or-flight.
• Prolonged stress can cause headaches, fatigue, digestive problems, sleep disturbances, and weakened immunity.
• Chronic stress is linked to hypertension, ulcers, and heart disease.

3. Cognitive Effects

• Stress affects thinking, memory, and decision-making.
• It may reduce attention, concentration, and learning ability.
• Individuals may experience confusion, indecisiveness, and negative thinking.
• Persistent stress can lower creativity, problem-solving, and performance.
• People under stress may overestimate problems and expect worst-case outcomes.

4. Behavioural Effects

• Stress influences actions and habits.
• Some individuals become withdrawn or socially isolated.
• Others may show aggressive, impulsive, or risk-taking behaviour.
• Stress may cause changes in eating patterns and sleep patterns.
• Increased use of alcohol, tobacco, or drugs is common.
• Stress can reduce productivity, motivation, and social interactions.

5. Stress and Health

• Short-term stress may help in coping with challenges, but chronic stress is harmful.
• Persistent stress contributes to psychosomatic disorders, heart disease, and weakened immunity.
• Mental health problems like anxiety and depression are more likely in chronically stressed individuals.
• Stress influences endocrine, nervous, and immune systems.

6. General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

• Alarm Stage: Body activates sympathetic nervous system, releases adrenaline, increases heart rate and alertness.
• Resistance Stage: Body tries to cope; physiological arousal remains stable, using energy to manage stress.
• Exhaustion Stage: Prolonged stress depletes resources, leading to fatigue, weakened immunity, and illness.

7. Stress and Immune System

• Chronic stress weakens the immune system and increases vulnerability to infection.
• Hormone cortisol suppresses white blood cells activity.
• Reduces antibody production, slows healing, and increases risk of cold, flu, ulcers, and heart problems.
• Positive emotions, social support, and relaxation strengthen immunity.

8. Lifestyle and Stress

• Unhealthy habits like lack of exercise, poor diet, sleep deprivation, smoking, and alcohol worsen stress effects.
• Healthy habits like regular exercise, balanced diet, proper sleep, relaxation, and social support reduce stress impact.
• Leisure activities and hobbies restore energy and emotional balance.
• Positive thinking and time management improve coping and reduce stress-related health risks.

Coping with Stress

Task-Oriented Strategy

• Involves actively addressing the source of stress.
• Focuses on problem-solving and taking concrete steps to change stressful situations.
• Examples include making plans, gathering information, seeking solutions, and organizing tasks efficiently.
• Effective when stressors are controllable or when action can reduce the problem.
• Encourages a sense of control and self-efficacy.

Emotion-Oriented Strategy

• Involves regulating one’s emotional response to stress rather than changing the stressor.
• Includes strategies like venting emotions, seeking emotional support, cognitive reframing, and acceptance.
• Useful when the stressor is uncontrollable or outside personal influence.
• Helps reduce negative emotions such as anxiety, anger, or sadness.
• Promotes psychological well-being by maintaining emotional balance.

Avoidance-Oriented Strategy

• Involves evading the stressor through distraction or withdrawal.
• Includes denial, procrastination, distraction through activities, or social withdrawal.
• Provides temporary relief but may be maladaptive if overused.
• Can delay dealing with the underlying problem, sometimes increasing stress later.

Stress Management Techniques

Relaxation Techniques

• Reduce physiological arousal caused by stress.
• Include progressive muscle relaxation, deep breathing exercises, and guided relaxation.
• Lower heart rate, blood pressure, and muscle tension.
on physiological processes.
• Training enables better self-regulation and stress control.
• Particularly useful for stress-related disorders like hypertension and chronic pain.

Creative Visualization

• Involves imagining positive and relaxing scenarios in the mind.
• Helps reduce negative thought patterns and promote relaxation.
• Often combined with guided imagery techniques.
• Enhances mental rehearsal for coping with stressful situations.

Cognitive Behavioral Techniques

• Focus on identifying and changing negative thoughts and behaviors associated with stress.
• Include cognitive restructuring, problem-solving skills, and adaptive coping strategies.
• Develop rational thinking and reduce maladaptive coping.
• Encourages self-awareness, emotional regulation, and behavioral change.

Exercise

• Reduces stress hormones and improves mood.
• Aerobic exercises like walking, jogging, swimming, and cycling enhance physical fitness and mental well-being.
• Stimulates endorphin release, reducing pain and promoting relaxation.
• Improves sleep quality, energy levels, and resilience to stress.

Promoting Positive Health and Well-Being

Stress-Resistant Personality

• Copes effectively with challenges.
• Characterized by optimism, flexibility, and self-confidence.
• Perceives stressors as manageable challenges rather than threats.
• Exhibits perseverance, sense of control, and emotional stability.
• Less prone to stress-related disorders.

Life Skills

• Abilities that help in effectively managing stress and challenges.
• Include decision-making, problem-solving, critical thinking, and effective communication.
• Enhance personal growth, social competence, and adaptive coping.
• Foster resilience, self-esteem, and interpersonal effectiveness.

Assertiveness

• Ability to express oneself confidently without harming others.
• Helps resolve conflicts, express needs, and maintain boundaries.
• Reduces stress from interpersonal difficulties.
• Encourages self-respect, confidence, and positive social interactions.

Time Management

• Planning and prioritizing activities to reduce stress and enhance productivity.
• Prevents procrastination and last-minute pressure.
• Includes setting goals, scheduling tasks, and balancing work-life commitments.
• Helps achieve efficiency, control, and life satisfaction.

Rational Thinking

• Analyzing situations logically and objectively.
• Helps in making constructive decisions under stress.
• Prevents overreaction, catastrophizing, and emotional bias.
• Promotes effective coping, problem-solving, and emotional regulation.

Improving Relationships

• Positive relationships provide social support and reduce stress.
• Requires empathy, active listening, cooperation, and conflict resolution.
• Encourages sharing feelings, mutual respect, and trust-building.
• Strong relationships enhance psychological well-being and life satisfaction.

Self-Care

• Attending to physical, emotional, and mental health needs.
• Practices include adequate sleep, relaxation, hobbies, mindfulness, and health check-ups.
• Helps in stress reduction, emotional balance, and physical well-being.

Overcoming Unhelpful Habits

• Unhelpful habits like procrastination, avoidance, negative self-talk, and unhealthy coping increase stress.
• Replacing them with positive routines, mindfulness, and adaptive behaviors enhances well-being.
• Encourages self-discipline, resilience, and personal growth.

Diet

• Balanced diet supports physical and mental health.
• Includes adequate proteins, vitamins, minerals, complex carbohydrates, and hydration.
• Avoids excess sugar, processed food, and caffeine, which can increase stress and anxiety.
• Healthy nutrition improves energy, focus, immunity, and overall resilience.

Exercise

• Regular exercise improves cardiovascular health, muscular strength, and flexibility.
• Stimulates endorphins, reducing anxiety and depression.
• Enhances sleep quality, energy levels, and cognitive functioning.
• Supports a stress-resistant and healthy lifestyle.