An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagar (c. 14th to 16th centuries)

Introduction

The city of Vijayanagar, literally meaning “City of Victory,” emerged in the 14th century on the banks of the Tungabhadra River (modern Hampi, Karnataka). It was the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1565 CE), one of the greatest and most prosperous kingdoms in South India.

Founded by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty, Vijayanagar became:

A political stronghold resisting invasions of Delhi Sultanate and Bahmani rulers.
A cultural center, promoting art, architecture, music, and literature.
A cosmopolitan hub of trade, attracting merchants from Arabia, Persia, Portugal, and China.

Its ruins, still visible at Hampi, reveal the grandeur of the imperial capital that dazzled both Indian and foreign travellers.

1. Sources for the History of Vijayanagar

🌟 Archaeological Sources

Extensive ruins at Hampi: temples, palaces, markets, tanks.
Fortifications and gateways.

🌟 Epigraphic Sources

Inscriptions recording land grants, temple donations, administration.

🌟 Literary Sources

Works in Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, and Tamil praising kings.
Royal chronicles.

🌟 Foreign Travellers’ Accounts

Niccolò de’ Conti (Italian).
Abdur Razzaq (Persian).
Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz (Portuguese).
Their writings describe urban life, prosperity, and grandeur of Vijayanagar.

2. Foundation and Dynasties of Vijayanagar

Established in 1336 CE by Harihara and Bukka under guidance of saint Vidyaranya.
Four ruling dynasties:
- Sangama (1336–1485) – founders.
- Saluva (1485–1505) – transition.
- Tuluva (1505–1565) – peak under Krishnadeva Raya.
- Aravidu (1565–1646) – decline after Battle of Talikota.

🌟 Vijayanagar symbolized political unity, military strength, and cultural synthesis in South India.

3. Urban Planning and Cityscape

The city was built with seven concentric fortifications enclosing agricultural fields, temples, and royal buildings.
Designed to combine defense, economy, and ritual needs.

Sacred Centre

Temples dedicated to Virupaksha (Shiva), Krishna, Tiruvengalanatha (Vishnu).
Pilgrimage center that legitimized royal power.

Royal Centre

Palaces, audience halls, treasury.
The Mahanavami Dibba (ceremonial platform) used for grand festivals.

Urban Core

Markets, residential areas, bazaars.
Hampi Bazaar – a thriving commercial hub near Virupaksha temple.

4. Economy and Prosperity

Agriculture

Well-developed irrigation with canals, tanks, embankments.
Produced rice, millets, pulses, cotton, sugarcane.
Agricultural surplus sustained urban population.

Trade and Commerce

Internal trade: textiles, rice, spices, precious stones.
External trade: horses (imported from Arabia and Central Asia), diamonds, pearls.
Ports like Goa, Calicut, Masulipatnam linked Vijayanagar to global trade.

Coins

Gold, silver, and copper coins issued by rulers.
Coins bore images of deities (Vishnu, Lakshmi, Hanuman) showing religious legitimacy.

5. Administration and Kingship

King considered the pivot of power, aided by ministers and military chiefs (nayakas).
Decentralized system:
- Nayankara system: local chiefs (nayakas) given control of territories in return for military service.
- Helped maintain army but created semi-independent powers.
Kings patronized temples, festivals, and religious institutions to assert authority.

6. Society and Culture

Social Life

Cosmopolitan population – Hindus, Jains, Muslims, Christians, traders from abroad.
Presence of artisans, soldiers, priests, farmers, slaves.
Social hierarchy influenced by caste but flexible in urban trade.

Women in Society

Women participated in temple rituals, literature, and administration.
Some women scholars, dancers, and musicians enjoyed prominence.
Devadasi system (women dedicated to temples) became widespread.

Religion

Predominantly Hindu (Shaivism and Vaishnavism).
Bhakti saints (Purandaradasa, Kanakadasa) flourished.
Tolerance towards Jains and Muslims; evidence of mosques in the city.

7. Art and Architecture

Vijayanagar architecture blended Dravidian style with Islamic influences.

Temples

Virupaksha Temple – still active, with tall gopuram.
Vitthala Temple – known for musical pillars and stone chariot.
Hazara Rama Temple – reliefs depicting Ramayana.

Palaces and Royal Structures

Lotus Mahal – elegant structure with Indo-Islamic features.
Elephant stables – domed structures for royal elephants.

Sculpture and Painting

Intricate carvings of deities, animals, scenes from epics.
Murals depicting courtly and religious themes.

🌟 Vijayanagar remains one of the most impressive architectural legacies of medieval India.

8. Festivals and Rituals

Mahanavami festival (Navaratri) celebrated with great pomp at Mahanavami Dibba.
Included processions, music, dance, animal sacrifices, and military displays.
Festivals symbolized royal power and divine blessing.

9. Foreign Travellers’ Descriptions

Niccolò de’ Conti (Italian, 15th century)

Admired size of city and wealth.

Abdur Razzaq (Persian, 15th century)

Described prosperity, palace of Deva Raya II, and social harmony.

Domingo Paes (Portuguese, 16th century)

Witnessed Krishnadeva Raya’s reign.
Described bazaars full of jewels, spices, and horses.
Praised efficiency of markets and grandeur of festivals.

Fernao Nuniz (Portuguese, 16th century)

Chronicled wars and politics.
Noted prosperity of agriculture and trade.

🌟 These accounts highlight Vijayanagar as a rich, cosmopolitan, and powerful imperial capital.

10. Peak under Krishnadeva Raya (1509–1529 CE)

Greatest ruler of the Tuluva dynasty.
Military conquests against Bahmani rulers and Odisha.
Patron of art and literature (wrote Amuktamalyada in Telugu).
Constructed temples and irrigation works.
His reign considered the golden age of Vijayanagar.

11. Decline of Vijayanagar

Internal weakness: nayakas became semi-independent.
Constant wars with Bahmani successor states (Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, Berar).
Battle of Talikota (1565 CE): Combined Deccan Sultanates defeated Vijayanagar.
City was plundered and burnt, leading to gradual decline.
Aravidu dynasty continued but empire lost prominence.

12. Legacy of Vijayanagar

Even after political decline, cultural influence remained strong.
Temple architecture and urban planning inspired South Indian kingdoms.
Vijayanagar became a symbol of Hindu cultural revival against Islamic expansion.
Today, Hampi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, preserving the glory of this imperial capital.

Conclusion

The city of Vijayanagar (14th–16th centuries) represents one of the most remarkable chapters in Indian history:

It was a political power center, resisting invasions.
A prosperous economy, based on agriculture and global trade.
A cultural beacon, producing grand temples, devotional music, and literature.
A cosmopolitan city, admired by travellers for its wealth and diversity.

Though destroyed in the 16th century, Vijayanagar’s ruins at Hampi still testify to its grandeur and continue to inspire historians and visitors alike.

FAQs

Q1. Who founded Vijayanagar?
Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty in 1336 CE.

Q2. Which ruler is considered the greatest of Vijayanagar?
Krishnadeva Raya (1509–1529 CE).

Q3. What was the Nayankara system?
A feudal system where local chiefs (nayakas) were given land in exchange for military service.

Q4. Which battle led to the decline of Vijayanagar?
The Battle of Talikota (1565 CE).

Q5. What are famous architectural monuments of Vijayanagar?
Virupaksha Temple, Vitthala Temple (stone chariot), Lotus Mahal, Elephant Stables, Hazara Rama Temple.