1. The Age of Social Change
1.1 European Society Before the Revolution
- Nineteenth-century Europe witnessed industrialization, urbanization, and class struggle.
- New social groups: Industrial workers and middle class.
- Working conditions: long hours, low wages, no job security.
- The Industrial Revolution created wealth but also poverty and misery.
1.2 Liberalism
- Emphasized freedom of the individual, private property, free markets, and equality before the law.
- Opposed monarchy and privileges based on birth.
- Supported constitutionalism, representative government.
- Limitation: denied voting rights to women and property-less men.
1.3 Radicalism
- Favoured government based on the majority.
- Advocated universal adult male suffrage.
- Supported social reforms in favour of workers.
1.4 Conservatism
- Favoured tradition, monarchy, church authority.
- Opposed change but later accepted need for gradual reforms.
2. The Coming of Socialism to Europe
2.1 Early Socialism
- Reaction against the evils of industrial capitalism.
- Emphasized collective ownership and cooperation.
- Early socialists called utopian socialists (e.g., Robert Owen) built model communities.
2.2 Karl Marx and Scientific Socialism
- Karl Marx (1818–1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) gave socialism a scientific basis.
- Marx argued:
- History is a history of class struggle.
- Capitalism will collapse due to its contradictions.
- Workers (proletariat) will overthrow capitalists (bourgeoisie).
- Establishment of a classless society based on collective ownership.
2.3 Socialist Parties in Europe
- Socialist parties emerged in Germany, France, Britain, and Russia in the late 19th century.
- 1889: Second International formed to coordinate socialist activities.
- Ideas of socialism gained popularity among workers, trade unions, and intellectuals.
3. The Russian Empire in 1914
3.1 The Tsarist Autocracy
- Russia was ruled by Tsar Nicholas II of the Romanov dynasty.
- Political system: absolute monarchy with no parliament (until 1905).
- Vast empire covering Eastern Europe and Asia.
3.2 Social Structure
- Peasants – 85% of the population, burdened with taxes and poverty, yet owned land in communes (mir).
- Nobility – privileged class, exempted from taxes.
- Middle Class (bourgeoisie) – small but growing.
- Workers – concentrated in cities like St. Petersburg and Moscow.
3.3 Conditions of Workers
- Harsh working hours, poor wages.
- No political rights, no unions.
- Discontent led to strikes and protests.
3.4 Political Parties
- Liberals – wanted constitutional monarchy.
- Social Revolutionaries (SRs) – supported peasants.
- Social Democrats (SDs) – Marxist, believed in workers’ revolution.
- Split into Bolsheviks (led by Lenin) and Mensheviks in 1903.
4. The 1905 Revolution
4.1 Causes
- Defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05) humiliated Russia.
- Economic hardship, rising prices, unemployment.
- Political repression.
4.2 Bloody Sunday (9 January 1905)
- Peaceful procession of workers led by Father Gapon in St. Petersburg.
- Demanded shorter hours, better wages, and constitution.
- Tsar’s troops fired on unarmed protestors → massacre.
- Sparked nationwide strikes, mutinies, and uprisings.
4.3 Outcome
- Tsar forced to create a parliament (Duma).
- But real power remained with the Tsar.
- Repression continued.
5. The First World War and Russia
5.1 Military Failures
- Russia entered WWI in 1914 against Germany and Austria.
- Ill-equipped soldiers, shortage of arms and food.
- Heavy defeats, huge casualties.
5.2 Economic Crisis
- War disrupted industries and trade.
- Food shortages, inflation, unemployment.
- Peasants refused to sell grain; workers starved.
5.3 Political Discontent
- Tsar’s mismanagement, unpopular monarchy.
- Influence of Rasputin discredited the royal family.
- Widespread anger paved the way for revolution.
6. The February Revolution of 1917
6.1 Outbreak
- Strikes in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) in February 1917.
- Women workers (International Women’s Day, 23 Feb) protested food shortages.
- Demonstrations grew; soldiers joined workers.
6.2 Abdication of Tsar
- Tsar Nicholas II abdicated on 2 March 1917.
- Monarchy ended.
6.3 The Provisional Government
- Power transferred to the Provisional Government.
- At the same time, the Petrograd Soviet (council of workers and soldiers) also claimed power.
- This created a dual power situation.
7. The October Revolution of 1917
7.1 Role of Lenin
- Lenin returned from exile in April 1917.
- Announced his April Theses:
- “Peace, Bread, Land”
- End of war
- Transfer of land to peasants
- Power to Soviets
- Criticized Provisional Government for continuing war.
7.2 Bolshevik Revolution
- October 1917: Bolsheviks, led by Lenin and Trotsky, planned an armed uprising.
- Seized key buildings, banks, railway stations in Petrograd.
- Winter Palace stormed on 25 October 1917.
- Provisional Government overthrown.
- Bolsheviks took power.
8. The Civil War and Stalin’s Rule
8.1 Civil War (1918–21)
- Opponents: Socialists, liberals, royalists, foreign armies.
- Red Army (Bolsheviks) vs White Army.
- Reds, led by Trotsky, eventually won.
8.2 Establishment of the USSR
- In 1922, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) formed.
- One-party state under Communist Party.
8.3 Lenin’s Economic Policies
- War Communism during Civil War: state control over production, forced grain requisition.
- NEP (New Economic Policy) (1921): limited private trade and small industries allowed to revive economy.
8.4 Stalin’s Collectivisation
- After Lenin’s death (1924), Joseph Stalin became leader.
- Introduced Five-Year Plans for rapid industrialisation.
- Agriculture collectivised – peasants forced into collective farms (kolkhoz).
- Harsh methods, resistance crushed.
9. Impact of the Russian Revolution
9.1 On Russia
- End of monarchy and feudalism.
- Establishment of world’s first socialist state.
- Industrialisation and modernisation.
- Harsh dictatorship under Stalin, but rapid growth.
9.2 On the World
- Inspired workers’ movements worldwide.
- Spread of socialist and communist parties in Asia, Europe, Latin America.
- Encouraged anti-colonial struggles (India, China, Vietnam).
- Fear of communism also spread (Red Scare).
10. The Russian Revolution and Everyday Life
- New symbols: hammer and sickle (unity of workers and peasants), red flag.
- Equality promoted: titles of nobility abolished.
- Education and literacy spread.
- Women gained rights – equal wages, access to education, maternity leave.
- But political freedom restricted under one-party rule.
11. Legacy of the Russian Revolution
- It was the first successful socialist revolution.
- Inspired movements for equality, social justice, and anti-imperialism.
- Showed possibilities and dangers of socialism.
- Left behind a complex legacy – achievements in education and economy, but also repression and authoritarianism.