HISTORY CLASS 11 – COURSE A

CHAPTER 3: NOMADIC EMPIRES

1. INTRODUCTION TO NOMADIC EMPIRES

1. Nomads as a historical force
   • Nomads lived across vast grasslands (steppes) of Central Asia.
   • Their lifestyle was mobile, based on pastoralism and seasonal movement.
   • They shaped political and cultural developments across Asia and Europe for centuries.
2. Misconceptions
   • Often portrayed only as violent destroyers.
   • In reality, nomads contributed to trade, cultural exchange, and political integration.
   • They bridged settled societies like China, Persia, and Eastern Europe.
3. The Eurasian Steppe
   • Stretching from Manchuria to Hungary.
   • Ideal for pastoralism—wide grasslands for horses, goats, sheep.
   • Harsh climate encouraged mobility and adaptation.
4. Importance of horses
   • Horses were central to nomadic lifestyle: travel, warfare, herding, communication.
   • Steppe warriors became unmatched in cavalry warfare.
5. Interaction with settled societies
   • Alternated between trade, coexistence, and conflict.
   • Nomads provided horses and raw materials; settled societies provided grain, textiles, metals.
6. Rise of Central Asian confederations
   • Before Mongols: Xiongnu, Turks, Uighurs, Khitans.
   • Mongols inherited and expanded this tradition.

2. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL BACKGROUND OF THE MONGOLS

A. SOCIAL STRUCTURE

1. Tribal organization
   • Society divided into clans (oboq) linked by kinship.
   • Multiple clans formed tribes under powerful chieftains.
2. Patrilineal system
   • Inheritance and descent through male line.
   • Senior males held authority, but women had significant influence.
3. Role of women
   • Managed households during men’s absence.
   • Participated in herding, logistics, and sometimes diplomacy.
   • Could own property and maintain family tents.
4. Pastoral lifestyle
   • Nomads lived in felt tents (gers/yurts).
   • Moved seasonally (transhumance) in search of pasture and water.
   • Economy: sheep, goats, camels, horses; limited agriculture.
5. Skills of daily life
   • Hunting, herding, riding, archery learned from childhood.
   • Self-sufficient production: leather goods, saddles, weapons, carts.
6. Social mobility
   • Unlike rigid caste societies, Mongols allowed rise through talent and bravery.
   • Slaves (nökors) could become loyal commanders.

B. POLITICAL BACKGROUND

1. Fragmented environment
   • Before Genghis Khan, Mongols were divided into rival tribes.
   • Frequent warfare among Tatars, Kereyits, Naimans, Merkit, and Mongols.
2. Chieftains and alliances
   • Leadership depended on personal charisma and military success.
   • Alliances made through marriages, oath-friendships (anda), and exchange of gifts.
3. Tradition of kurultai
   • Grand assembly of tribal leaders.
   • Elected khans, approved military decisions, and resolved disputes.
4. External pressures
   • Neighbouring empires (Jin, Song, Khwarazm) interfered in steppe politics.
   • Trade routes and tribute often sources of conflict.
5. Importance of security and unity
   • Need for protection against enemies pushed tribes toward federations.
   • Genghis Khan emerged as a unifying figure in this environment.

3. THE CAREER OF GENGHIS KHAN

A. EARLY LIFE

1. Birth and background
   • Born as Temujin (c. 1162).
   • Son of Yesugei, a minor chieftain of the Borjigin clan.
   • After father’s poisoning by Tatars, the family lost support and fell into hardship.
2. Childhood struggles
   • Lived in poverty; hunted for survival.
   • Early exposure to betrayal, clan politics, and violence.
3. Marriage to Börte
   • Strengthened alliances but also sparked conflict after she was kidnapped by Merkits.
   • Temujin’s rescue mission forged friendships with future generals.

B. RISE TO POWER

1. Building alliances
   • Won support through loyalty rather than aristocratic birth.
   • Promoted talented individuals irrespective of clan.
2. Conflict with rival tribes
   • Defeated the Tatars, Kereyits, Naimans, and other powerful groups.
3. Kurultai of 1206
   • Temujin proclaimed Genghis Khan, meaning “Universal Ruler.”
   • This marked the founding of the Mongol Empire.

C. MILITARY CAMPAIGNS OF GENGHIS KHAN

1. Against the Xi Xia (Tangut kingdom)
   • Tested Mongol military capabilities.
   • Improved siege tactics and logistics.
2. War with the Jin Dynasty (North China)
   • Attacked due to commercial restrictions and political hostility.
   • Captured Beijing (Zhongdu) in 1215.
3. Central Asian Expedition
   • Triggered by killing of Mongol envoys by Khwarazm Shah.
   • Cities like Bukhara, Samarkand, and Herat defeated.
4. Campaigns to the west
   • Reached Caspian Sea, Caucasus, and even Eastern Europe.
5. Methods of warfare
   • Speed, mobility, psychological warfare.
   • Use of spies, scouts, and devastating cavalry charges.

D. GENGHIS KHAN AS A LEADER

1. Talent-based appointments
   • Commanders promoted for merit, not noble birth.
2. Legal reforms – the Yasa
   • Codified rules on discipline, military conduct, theft, marriage, and administration.
3. Religious tolerance
   • Protected Christians, Buddhists, Muslims, and shamans.
   • Ensured stability in a multi-religious empire.
4. Trade promotion
   • Encouraged merchants; provided passports (paiza).
   • Secured Silk Route from bandits.
5. Legacy
   • Forged largest land empire in history after death.
   • Transformed steppe confederations into a world empire.

4. THE MONGOLS AFTER GENGHIS KHAN

A. SUCCESSION AND DIVISION

1. Genghis Khan died in 1227
   • According to nomadic custom, empire divided among sons.
   • But supreme khan elected by kurultai.
2. Ögedei Khan (1229–1241)
   • Expanded empire into Russia, Poland, and Hungary.
   • Completed conquest of Jin Dynasty.
3. Güyük Khan and Möngke Khan
   • Möngke launched massive conquest of Iraq and Syria.
   • Destroyed Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad (1258).

B. FORMATION OF FOUR MAJOR KHANATES

1. The Golden Horde (Russia & Eastern Europe)
   • Founded by Batu.
   • Ruled over Russian principalities and steppes around the Volga.
2. The Ilkhanate (Persia and Middle East)
   • Established by Hulegu.
   • Influenced Persian culture, taxation, and architecture.
3. The Chagatai Khanate (Central Asia)
   • Controlled Silk Route towns like Samarkand and Bukhara.
   • Later birthplace of Timur’s expansion (14th century).
4. The Yuan Dynasty (China)
   • Founded by Kublai Khan (1271).
   • Became a Chinese-style empire but remained ethnically Mongol rulers.
   • Conquered Song Dynasty and unified China.

C. THE PAX MONGOLICA (“MONGOL PEACE”)

1. Meaning
   • Period of stability and safe travel across Eurasia (13th–14th centuries).
2. Benefits
   • Revival of Silk Route.
   • Exchange of technology, ideas, medicines, plants, and inventions.
3. Travellers and envoys
   • Marco Polo, Ibn Battuta, John of Plano Carpini visited Mongol courts.
   • Spread knowledge between East and West.
4. Cultural interactions
   • Gunpowder, compass, Persian astronomy, and Chinese printing circulated widely.

5. SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND MILITARY ORGANISATION OF THE MONGOLS

A. SOCIAL ORGANISATION

1. Clan-based but flexible
   • Loyalty more important than birth.
   • Adopted outsiders into Mongol tribes if loyal.
2. Role of women
   • Assisted in administration during male absence.
   • Some women acted as regents in different khanates.
3. Legal framework
   • Yasa ensured order, discipline, and fairness.
   • Severe penalties for theft, lying, desertion.

B. POLITICAL ORGANISATION

1. Khan as supreme authority
   • Selected through kurultai.
   • Seen as chosen by Eternal Heaven (Tengri).
2. Decentralisation and autonomy
   • Each khanate ruled by a branch of Genghis Khan’s descendants.
   • Local customs respected.
3. Administration
   • Census conducted in cities.
   • Taxation delegated to local elites or merchant associations.
4. Religious tolerance as state policy
   • Priests exempted from tax.
   • Promoted harmony in multicultural empire.

C. MILITARY ORGANISATION

1. Strength built on cavalry
   • Light and heavy horse archers.
   • Rapid mobility over long distances.
2. Decimal system
   • 10 (arban)
   • 100 (zuun)
   • 1000 (mingghan)
   • 10,000 (tumen)
   • Ensured discipline and clear hierarchy.
3. Training and discipline
   • Soldiers trained from childhood.
   • Each unit responsible for comrades’ performance.
4. Weapons and tactics
   • Composite bow, lances, swords, lassos.
   • Feigned retreat, encirclement, multi-directional attack.
5. Intelligence and communication
   • Yam system: horse relay stations for messages.
   • Efficient spying networks.
6. Siege technology
   • Adopted engineers from China and Persia.
   • Used catapults, fire arrows, mining, blockade tactics.

6. CONCLUSION

1. The Mongol Empire reshaped Eurasian history through mobility, adaptability, and military innovation.
2. Their achievements went beyond conquest—they connected distant cultures, reopened trade routes, and encouraged scientific exchange.
3. Genghis Khan’s leadership created a unified empire from scattered tribes.
4. After his death, the empire evolved into multiple khanates, each influencing its region’s culture and politics.
5. The Mongols introduced efficient communication, promoted religious tolerance, and developed sophisticated administration across vast territories.
6. Although often remembered for destruction, their long-term impact included economic integration and cultural transfer across continents.
7. The Nomadic Empire stands as a reminder of how mobile societies shaped world history through both conflict and cooperation.