📘 Chapter 2: Rebels and the Raj – The Revolt of 1857 and Its Representations

🔹 Introduction

1. The Revolt of 1857 was the first major expression of Indian resistance against British colonial rule.
2. It is also called the First War of Independence, though the British termed it the Sepoy Mutiny.
3. The revolt began in May 1857 at Meerut, when Indian sepoys refused to use new rifle cartridges suspected of being greased with cow and pig fat.
4. The rebellion soon spread to Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Bareilly, and other regions.
5. It involved not just soldiers but also peasants, artisans, landlords, and princes.
6. The revolt was a complex event with diverse causes — political, economic, social, religious, and military.
7. The British crushed it brutally by mid-1858, but its memory remained alive and shaped future national movements.

🔹 1. Pattern of the Uprising

🔸 1.1 The Beginning at Meerut

1. The immediate cause of the revolt was the introduction of the Enfield rifle.
2. Soldiers had to bite off the cartridge cover, which was rumored to be greased with cow and pig fat.
3. This offended both Hindu (cow) and Muslim (pig) religious sentiments.
4. 85 sepoys of the 3rd Native Cavalry refused to use the cartridges and were court-martialed.
5. On 10 May 1857, their comrades rose in rebellion, freed them, and marched to Delhi.

🔸 1.2 Spread to Delhi

1. The rebels reached Delhi on 11 May 1857, killed British officers, and proclaimed the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar as their leader.
2. The Mughal emperor, though aged and weak, became a symbolic head of the uprising.
3. Delhi became the centre of the rebellion for several months.
4. Messages were sent out across India urging people to join under the Mughal banner.

🔸 1.3 Spread of the Revolt Across North India

1. The revolt spread rapidly to Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Bareilly, Bihar, and Central India.
2. The rebels attacked British cantonments, treasury offices, and telegraph lines.
3. Key rebel leaders emerged in different areas:
   • Kanpur: Nana Saheb and Tantia Tope.
   • Jhansi: Rani Lakshmibai.
   • Lucknow (Awadh): Begum Hazrat Mahal.
   • Bihar: Kunwar Singh.
4. The uprising remained largely confined to North and Central India.
5. Southern and most eastern regions remained quiet, indicating regional variations.

🔸 1.4 Nature of Leadership

1. Leadership was often local and decentralized.
2. In many places, traditional rulers or dispossessed nobles led the rebellion.
3. There was no single unified command or nationwide coordination.
4. Despite this, rebels shared a common hatred of British rule.

🔹 2. Awadh in Revolt

🔸 2.1 Annexation and Discontent

1. Awadh was annexed by Lord Dalhousie in 1856 under the Doctrine of Lapse (officially on grounds of misgovernment).
2. The annexation caused massive discontent:
   • Nobles and taluqdars lost estates.
   • Soldiers from Awadh (a major recruitment area) felt betrayed.
   • Peasants suffered new revenue systems.
3. The British replaced traditional taluqdari rights with direct revenue settlements with peasants.
4. This disrupted social and economic structures that had existed for centuries.

🔸 2.2 Taluqdars and Peasants Unite

1. Taluqdars (landlords), who had lost land, became active supporters of the revolt.
2. Peasants joined because British policies had increased taxes and reduced customary rights.
3. Rebels in Awadh often declared the restoration of old rulers and rights.
4. Lucknow became a major centre of resistance led by Begum Hazrat Mahal, who ruled on behalf of her son Birjis Qadr.
5. British residents and loyalists were besieged in the Lucknow Residency, one of the most famous battles of 1857.

🔸 2.3 Symbols and Ideals

1. Rebels in Awadh tried to restore the old order rather than create a new one.
2. Proclamations issued in the name of Bahadur Shah Zafar called for unity among Hindus and Muslims.
3. Rebels promised protection to traders, peasants, and artisans if they supported the cause.

🔹 3. What the Rebels Wanted

🔸 3.1 The Vision of a Restored World

1. The rebels’ demands can be seen through proclamations and letters they issued.
2. They wanted the restoration of pre-British political authority.
3. They sought to end:
   • British control over land and trade.
   • Discrimination against Indian soldiers.
   • Destruction of traditional economy.
4. The Mughal emperor was looked upon as a symbol of legitimacy.
5. Many proclamations mixed religious and political appeals — urging Hindus and Muslims to unite.
6. They spoke of justice, protection of religion, and freedom from foreign domination.

🔸 3.2 Use of Religion

1. Rebels used religious language to mobilize people.
2. They declared that British rule had destroyed faith, caste purity, and social customs.
3. The cartridges issue became a symbol of the British assault on religion.
4. Rebels promised to restore temples, mosques, and traditional customs.
5. The religious appeal helped create unity across social groups.

🔸 3.3 The Political Vision

1. Rebels desired the return of native rulers in each region.
2. However, there was no clear plan for a unified Indian nation.
3. Still, the movement reflected a collective sense of betrayal and injustice under colonial rule.
4. Some rebels issued coins and stamps in the name of the Mughal emperor.
5. This showed an effort to legitimize their rule and restore sovereignty.

🔹 4. Repression

🔸 4.1 British Counter-Attack

1. The British regained control through brutal military action.
2. Delhi was recaptured in September 1857 after fierce fighting.
3. Bahadur Shah Zafar was captured and exiled to Rangoon (Burma).
4. His sons were executed.
5. The British took Kanpur, Lucknow, and Jhansi through massive military campaigns.
6. They used modern weapons, reinforcements from Britain, and loyal Indian troops (Sikhs, Gurkhas, Pathans).

🔸 4.2 Brutality and Punishment

1. The suppression was marked by mass executions, hangings, and villages burned.
2. Rebels were blown from cannons, hanged publicly, or shot.
3. Civilians were often punished on suspicion of sympathy with rebels.
4. British officers recorded their vengeance as “divine justice.”
5. This violent repression left deep scars in Indian memory.

🔸 4.3 Changes in Administration

1. After the revolt, the British Crown took direct control of India in 1858.
2. The East India Company was abolished.
3. The post of Secretary of State for India was created in London.
4. A new policy of ‘divide and rule’ was adopted:
   • Favoring princes, zamindars, and loyal communities.
   • Encouraging divisions between Hindus and Muslims.
5. Indian soldiers were reorganized to prevent future mutinies — more British officers, mixed regiments, and exclusion of certain groups.

🔹 5. Images of the Revolt

🔸 5.1 British Representations

1. British artists and writers created numerous paintings, sketches, and stories about 1857.
2. They portrayed the revolt as:
   • A “mutiny” — an act of treachery and barbarism.
   • A threat to British civilization and Christianity.
3. Newspapers carried exaggerated accounts of massacres by rebels, especially the Kanpur incident.
4. These images justified British revenge and imperial rule.
5. Paintings often showed British women and children as innocent victims and soldiers as heroes avenging them.

🔸 5.2 The Heroic British Image

1. Paintings like “Relief of Lucknow” depicted British bravery and moral superiority.
2. Artists such as Thomas Jones Barker and others created romanticized versions of British heroism.
3. Such depictions formed part of the imperial propaganda.
4. They were displayed in London galleries to win public sympathy for empire.

🔸 5.3 Indian Representations

1. Indian memory of 1857 was very different.
2. In Indian songs, poems, and stories, rebels like Rani Lakshmibai, Tantia Tope, Kunwar Singh, and Bahadur Shah Zafar became folk heroes.
3. The revolt symbolized the spirit of sacrifice and patriotism.
4. The image of Bharat Mata (Mother India) later drew inspiration from 1857 martyrs.
5. Local ballads and oral traditions kept the memory of resistance alive.

🔸 5.4 Changing Interpretations Over Time

1. Early British historians (like Kaye and Malleson) called it a “Sepoy Mutiny”, limited to soldiers.
2. Later Indian historians and nationalists termed it a “War of Independence.”
3. Modern historians view it as a complex peasant and soldier uprising, not a single unified national movement but a broad anti-colonial rebellion.
4. Each interpretation reflects the political context of its time.

🔹 6. Conclusion

1. The Revolt of 1857 was a turning point in Indian history.
2. Though it failed militarily, it:
   • Exposed deep grievances against British rule.
   • Ended the rule of the East India Company.
   • Led to administrative and military reforms.
3. It also awakened a sense of unity and resistance among Indians.
4. The revolt’s legacy lived on in later freedom movements.
5. Indian leaders of the 20th century saw 1857 as the first step toward independence.
6. It became a symbol of courage, sacrifice, and the desire for freedom.

🔹 7. Key Points Summary

🔹 8. Important Terms

• Doctrine of Lapse: Policy by Lord Dalhousie to annex states without a male heir.
• Taluqdars: Aristocratic landowners of Awadh.
• Enfield Rifle: Cartridge issue that triggered the revolt.
• Residency: British stronghold at Lucknow under siege in 1857.
• Bahadur Shah Zafar: Last Mughal emperor, exiled to Rangoon.
• Begum Hazrat Mahal: Leader of Awadh revolt.
• Rani Lakshmibai: Queen of Jhansi, symbol of bravery.
• Nana Saheb: Leader of Kanpur, adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II.
• Kunwar Singh: Zamindar of Jagdishpur, Bihar, led rebellion at age 80.

🔹 9. Timeline of Key Events

🔹 10. Legacy of 1857

1. Marked the end of the Mughal dynasty.
2. Initiated direct British Crown rule.
3. Introduced racial segregation and mistrust.
4. British adopted a cautious approach toward Indian traditions.
5. It inspired later revolts and nationalist movements.
6. Figures like Savarkar, Nehru, and Gandhi referred to it as a national awakening.
7. The revolt remains a symbol of unity across caste, religion, and region in the Indian freedom struggle.