HISTORY CLASS 12 (COURSE C)

CHAPTER 1 – COLONIALISM AND THE COUNTRYSIDE: EXPLORING OFFICIAL ARCHIVES

Introduction

1. The countryside during British rule was not just a landscape of fields and crops — it was a complex social and economic world.
2. Colonial policies transformed Indian agrarian life. They altered land ownership, patterns of production, taxation systems, and the relation between peasants and landlords.
3. British officials, while governing, also created extensive archives — records, surveys, and reports — that today serve as the main sources to study rural India under colonial rule.
4. This chapter examines three key regions to understand the diversity of agrarian change:
   • Bengal under Permanent Settlement.
   • Bombay Deccan with ryotwari system and peasant resistance.
   • The Deccan Riots Commission Report as a case of official investigation.
5. These case studies highlight the impact of colonial land policies, peasant reactions, and the use of official archives in reconstructing rural history.

1. Bengal and the Zamindars

1.1 Background: The East India Company as Ruler

1. After the Battle of Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764), the East India Company became the political and economic ruler of Bengal.
2. In 1765, the Company received the Diwani rights—the right to collect revenue—from the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.
3. The Company’s officials were merchants turned administrators; their main objective was maximizing revenue to fund their trade and administration.
4. The British needed a stable and regular income source. Bengal’s agrarian structure became the testing ground for new land revenue policies.

1.2 The Permanent Settlement (1793)

1. Introduced by Lord Cornwallis in 1793, under the guidance of John Shore.
2. The system was based on the idea that private ownership of land would encourage investment and improve productivity.
3. The British believed that Indian peasants lacked incentive because they were tenants; therefore, a class of hereditary landlords (zamindars) should be created.
4. Under this settlement:
   • Zamindars were recognized as permanent landowners.
   • They had to pay a fixed revenue annually to the colonial government.
   • The amount was frozen forever, i.e., it could never be increased.
5. In return, zamindars were expected to:
   • Improve agriculture.
   • Invest in irrigation and infrastructure.
   • Protect tenants and ensure smooth collection of rent.

1.3 Consequences of Permanent Settlement

1. For the British Government:
   • Initially, the system seemed profitable.
   • But over time, revenue stagnated while prices and production rose.
   • The government realized it could have collected much more under a flexible system.
2. For Zamindars:
   • Many failed to pay the fixed revenue on time.
   • Land was auctioned off to new buyers under Sunset Law (1797).
   • A class of absentee landlords emerged—living in cities like Calcutta and managing estates through agents.
3. For Peasants (Raiyats):
   • They faced high rents, illegal cesses, and forced labour (begar).
   • Tenancy rights were insecure.
   • Frequent land transfers caused instability in village life.
   • Peasants often fell into debt and faced eviction.
4. For Agriculture:
   • Few zamindars invested in land improvements.
   • Cultivation remained traditional.
   • Famines (like 1770 Bengal famine) exposed the fragility of the system.

1.4 The Zamindar and His Estate

1. The zamindar was not just a tax collector but also a local ruler and patron.
2. His status symbolized authority, culture, and patronage.
3. Zamindari estates varied in size—some controlled several villages; others were small.
4. They built mansions (kutcheries), temples, and sponsored local festivals.
5. However, competition and revenue pressure made many zamindars dependent on moneylenders and auction purchases.

1.5 The Raiyat (Peasant) and the Village

1. Peasants were the backbone of the agrarian system.
2. Most were small cultivators with limited land or tenants-at-will.
3. They produced rice, jute, sugarcane, indigo, and other crops for local consumption and trade.
4. They faced double pressure—from zamindars and the colonial state.
5. Many became indebted to mahajans (moneylenders).
6. The rural society was divided:
   • Rich peasants or substantial ryots sometimes sublet land.
   • Poor peasants became labourers or migrated.

1.6 Rural Tensions

1. The rigid system created continuous conflict between zamindars and peasants.
2. Peasants often refused to pay high rents or resisted illegal demands.
3. Records mention petitions, court cases, and local protests.
4. The system of patni tenures (subinfeudation) complicated relationships further.
5. By the mid-19th century, Bengal’s countryside reflected agrarian decline and rural unrest.

1.7 Archival Sources on Bengal

1. British records include:
   • Revenue Settlement Reports
   • District Collector’s Diaries
   • Court records
   • Zamindari documents
2. These sources reveal official perspectives, but often ignore peasant voices.
3. Historians must read against the grain—interpreting what is hidden or omitted.
4. For example, petitions from ryots provide glimpses of rural suffering and everyday resistance.

2. The Hoe and the Plough

2.1 The Expansion of Cultivation

1. During the 19th century, the British encouraged commercial crops like cotton, indigo, sugarcane, and opium.
2. The goal was to supply raw materials for British industries.
3. The countryside witnessed:
   • Deforestation
   • Expansion into wastelands
   • Introduction of new crops and tools
4. However, ecological changes disrupted traditional farming systems and livelihoods.

2.2 The Ryotwari System in Bombay Deccan

1. Introduced by Thomas Munro in Madras and extended to Bombay Deccan (early 19th century).
2. Unlike Bengal, land revenue was collected directly from individual cultivators (ryots).
3. Key features:
   • Each peasant was recognized as owner of his plot.
   • The state assessed land productivity and fixed the revenue annually.
   • No middlemen (zamindars) existed.
4. Revenue rates were high and inflexible—sometimes half of the produce.
5. The system burdened peasants; in years of bad harvest, they faced confiscation or sale of land.

2.3 Life of the Ryot

1. The ryot’s life was shaped by:
   • Monsoon dependence.
   • Debt to moneylenders.
   • High revenue demands.
2. Peasants often borrowed from sahukars to pay taxes on time.
3. When crops failed, debts accumulated with interest.
4. Property laws allowed moneylenders to seize land in case of non-payment.
5. The ryot thus became tenant of his own field or migrated for labour.

2.4 Cotton and Global Demand

1. With the rise of British textile industry, Indian cotton became a vital export.
2. During the American Civil War (1861–65), Bombay Deccan became a major supplier of cotton.
3. Prices soared, and peasants expanded cotton cultivation.
4. Many borrowed heavily to buy seeds, tools, and bullocks.
5. When American cotton returned to market, prices crashed, and peasants could not repay debts.
6. This economic distress paved the way for agrarian revolts.

2.5 Changing Landscape and Tools

1. New tools like the iron ploughshare were introduced but were expensive.
2. Peasants often continued with traditional hoes and wooden ploughs.
3. Expansion led to decline of common grazing lands and increased inequality.
4. Ecological degradation worsened drought impact, intensifying poverty.

3. A Revolt in the Countryside: The Bombay Deccan

3.1 The Background of the Revolt (1875)

1. By the 1870s, the Deccan countryside was tense with economic hardship.
2. Debt bondage and land alienation were widespread.
3. Moneylenders (mostly Marwaris and Gujaratis) were blamed for exploitation.
4. Usurious interest rates, fraudulent accounting, and property seizures led to anger among ryots.
5. This resentment culminated in the Deccan Riots of 1875.

3.2 The Course of the Riots

1. The riots began in village Supa (Ahmednagar district) in May 1875.
2. Peasants attacked shops and houses of moneylenders.
3. Account books and debt bonds were burnt publicly to destroy records of debt.
4. The movement spread to Poona and other districts.
5. Peasants avoided violence against government officials—they targeted only moneylenders.
6. The uprising reflected a disciplined, organized protest, not random mob action.

3.3 British Reaction

1. Initially, the government was alarmed but avoided harsh repression.
2. Officials realized the revolt was economic, not political.
3. To investigate, they set up the Deccan Riots Commission (1878).
4. The Commission collected evidence from villagers, moneylenders, and officials to study causes and suggest reforms.

4. The Deccan Riots Commission

4.1 Nature and Function

1. The Deccan Riots Commission was an official inquiry into the causes and extent of the agrarian disturbances.
2. It collected oral testimonies, petitions, and reports.
3. Members included senior British administrators and revenue officers.
4. Their findings became part of the official archive of colonial India.

4.2 Findings of the Commission

1. Main Causes Identified:
   • Heavy revenue assessments.
   • High interest rates charged by moneylenders.
   • Legal system favoring creditors.
   • Decline in cotton prices after 1865.
2. The Commission observed that peasants were not lawless but reacting to economic injustice.
3. It recommended some legal reforms:
   • Limiting interest rates.
   • Restricting land transfer to non-agriculturists.
   • Protecting peasant rights.

4.3 The Deccan Agriculturists’ Relief Act (1879)

1. Based on the Commission’s report, the government passed this Act in 1879.
2. Key features:
   • It allowed peasants to appeal against excessive interest.
   • Provided legal aid to indebted ryots.
   • Restricted seizure of land for debt.
3. Although limited, it was one of the first state interventions in protecting peasant interests.

4.4 Reading Official Archives

1. The Deccan Riots Commission Report offers rich material on rural society.
2. However, it reflects colonial biases—officials viewed peasants as ignorant and emotional.
3. Historians must interpret testimonies carefully to extract peasant perspectives.
4. Such records reveal patterns of resistance, economic relations, and colonial ideology.

5. Conclusion

5.1 Understanding Colonial Agrarian Change

1. Colonial rule restructured Indian countryside through revenue settlements, commercialization, and legal changes.
2. In Bengal, the Permanent Settlement created a class of landlords and exploited tenants.
3. In the Deccan, the ryotwari system burdened peasants with heavy taxes and debt.
4. Both systems reflected the colonial aim of revenue extraction, not agricultural improvement.

5.2 Peasant Voices and Resistance

1. Peasants were not passive victims; they protested, petitioned, and revolted.
2. Their actions—from refusing rent to burning debt records—symbolized rural assertion.
3. Resistance often remained localized, but it challenged colonial authority and exposed injustice.

5.3 The Use of Official Archives

1. Colonial records, though biased, are invaluable for reconstructing history.
2. They show how the British classified, recorded, and interpreted Indian society.
3. Modern historians use these sources to recover subaltern perspectives—voices from below.
4. Reading “against the grain” helps reveal what the records conceal: peasant suffering, resilience, and adaptation.

5.4 Legacy of Colonial Agrarian Policies

1. Colonial policies left a long-term impact on Indian agriculture:
   • Land inequality.
   • Rural indebtedness.
   • Dependence on cash crops.
2. Post-independence reforms like land ceilings and tenancy laws aimed to correct these imbalances.
3. Understanding the colonial countryside thus remains essential to understanding modern rural India.

Summary Points

• British land policies differed regionally but shared the motive of maximizing revenue.
• The Permanent Settlement created zamindar intermediaries in Bengal.
• The Ryotwari System made peasants responsible for direct payments in the Deccan.
• Economic distress led to the Deccan Riots of 1875.
• The Deccan Riots Commission Report became a key official archive.
• Peasant resistance reflected the struggle for justice and dignity.
• Colonial archives are not neutral—they mirror the mindset of rulers, but also preserve traces of the ruled.