🏰 Chapter 3 – An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara (c. 14th–16th Century)

(CBSE Class 12 – History, Course B)

🪶 1. The Discovery of Hampi

1.1 Rediscovery of Vijayanagara

• The ruins of Vijayanagara (present-day Hampi, Karnataka) were rediscovered in 1800 CE by Colin Mackenzie, a Scottish engineer and antiquarian.
• He was India’s first Surveyor General (1815–1821).
• Mackenzie collected maps, sketches, inscriptions, local histories, and oral accounts.
• His work marked the beginning of systematic archaeological study of South India.

1.2 Sources of Reconstruction

• Archaeological findings: temples, palaces, irrigation systems, fortifications.
• Literary sources: foreign travelers, inscriptions, and religious texts.
• Important travelers:
  • Niccolò de Conti (Italian) – visited in early 15th century.
  • Abdur Razzaq (Persia) – visited in 1440s, ambassador from Herat.
  • Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz (Portuguese) – visited during 16th century.
  • Afanasii Nikitin (Russia) – left brief notes.
• Epigraphic sources include Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit inscriptions.

1.3 Challenges in Historical Reconstruction

• Many structures were destroyed after the city’s fall in 1565 CE (Battle of Talikota).
• Religious and royal monuments were reused by later rulers.
• Identification of ruins (temples, markets, palaces) requires interpretation based on architecture and literary evidence.

🌆 2. Vijayanagara – The Capital and Its Environs

2.1 Foundation of the Empire

• Founded in 1336 CE by Harihara and Bukka Raya of the Sangama dynasty.
• Located on the banks of Tungabhadra River, surrounded by rocky hills.
• City’s name derived from “Vijaya” (victory) and “Nagara” (city).
• The capital was the core of the Vijayanagara Empire, one of the strongest kingdoms in South India.

2.2 Political Background

• Established in response to the decline of Delhi Sultanate’s control in the south.
• Aimed to resist invasions from the north and unify southern states.
• At its height under Krishnadeva Raya (1509–1529), the empire extended from Orissa to Kerala.

2.3 Dynasties of Vijayanagara

1. Sangama Dynasty (1336–1485) – Founders Harihara I and Bukka Raya I.
2. Saluva Dynasty (1485–1505) – Founded by Saluva Narasimha.
3. Tuluva Dynasty (1505–1570) – Most famous ruler: Krishnadeva Raya.
4. Aravidu Dynasty (1570–1646) – Continued after the fall of Hampi.

2.4 Strategic Location

• Natural defensive features: granite hills and Tungabhadra river.
• Fertile plains supported agriculture.
• Easy access to coastal ports (Goa, Calicut) for trade.
• Served as a cultural bridge between the Tamil, Kannada, and Telugu regions.

🕌 3. The Sacred Centre

3.1 Importance of the Sacred Centre

• Hampi’s sacred area lies along the Tungabhadra river.
• It contains numerous temples, shrines, and sacred tanks.
• Religious life was deeply linked with political authority.

3.2 Major Temples

1. Virupaksha Temple (Hampi)
   • Dedicated to Lord Shiva, an ancient temple pre-dating the empire.
   • Expanded by rulers like Krishnadeva Raya.
   • Center of religious ceremonies, including coronations.
   • The annual Pampa festival celebrated the marriage of Pampa (goddess) and Virupaksha (Shiva).
2. Vitthala Temple
   • Dedicated to Lord Vitthala (Vishnu).
   • Famous for its stone chariot and musical pillars.
   • Represents Vijayanagara’s architectural and artistic excellence.
3. Hazara Rama Temple
   • Built by Krishnadeva Raya within the royal centre.
   • Depicts scenes from the Ramayana on its walls.

3.3 Religion and Rituals

• Religion legitimized royal power. Kings sponsored temple construction.
• Donations were given to Brahmins, temples, and religious institutions.
• Temples functioned as economic and cultural hubs.
• Endowments funded festivals, feeding pilgrims, and temple maintenance.

3.4 Pilgrimage and Sacred Geography

• The Tungabhadra region was viewed as sacred.
• Shrines were linked with Pampa (associated with Goddess Parvati).
• The blending of Shaivite, Vaishnavite, and local cults created a composite sacred tradition.

👑 4. The Royal Centre

4.1 Location and Structure

• The Royal Centre lay to the southwest of the sacred zone.
• Included palaces, audience halls, defensive enclosures, and courtly structures.
• Most structures were built with rubble masonry and plaster, hence only foundations remain.

4.2 The King and His Court

• The king was seen as the representative of divine authority.
• Royal rituals emphasized the sacredness of kingship.
• The throne room was an important ceremonial space for audiences and festivals.
• The court included ministers, generals, scholars, poets, and religious figures.

4.3 Major Structures

1. Mahanavami Dibba (Great Platform)
   • Massive stone platform built by Krishnadeva Raya.
   • Used for the Navaratri (Mahanavami) festival.
   • Engravings depict royal processions, dancers, horses, elephants, and army review.
2. Lotus Mahal (Chandrasala Mahal)
   • Pavilion with Indo-Islamic architectural style.
   • Possibly used as a council hall or for royal women.
3. Elephant Stables
   • Large domed structure to house royal elephants.
   • Reflects blend of Islamic arches and Dravidian domes.
4. Audience Halls and Palaces
   • Multi-level buildings used for official gatherings and military planning.
   • Showcases grandeur of the Vijayanagara court.

4.4 The Royal Ceremonies

• The most celebrated event: Mahanavami Festival (Dasara).
• Involved royal worship, processions, feasts, and military reviews.
• Symbolized the might and prosperity of the empire.

🛕 5. Plotting Palaces, Temples, and Bazaars

5.1 Urban Planning

• The city was divided into distinct zones:
  1. Sacred Zone – Temples and pilgrimage areas.
  2. Royal Zone – Palaces, administrative buildings.
  3. Urban Zone – Residential areas, markets, and craft centres.
• Roads and streets were laid out systematically and connected key areas.
• Bazaars often developed around temple complexes.

5.2 Bazaars and Economic Activity

• Marketplaces near temples served pilgrims and citizens.
• Sold food, flowers, spices, textiles, jewels, and horses.
• Portuguese travelers described markets full of rubies, pearls, silk, and perfumes.
• Trade with Arabs, Portuguese, and Chinese.

5.3 Water Management and Agriculture

• Canals, tanks, and wells built for irrigation.
• Example: Kamalapura tank and Hiriya canal (built by kings).
• Agricultural produce included rice, pulses, sugarcane, and betel.
• Surplus from agriculture supported urban growth.

5.4 Military and Fortifications

• Multi-layered fortification system surrounded the city.
• Fort walls integrated with natural rock formations.
• Gates controlled entry and trade taxation.
• Watchtowers and moats ensured protection.

5.5 Housing and Social Hierarchy

• Elite houses made of stone and decorated with pillars.
• Common houses built of mud and thatch.
• Social segregation: Brahmin quarters near temples, artisans near bazaars.
• Urban space reflected both religious and social order.

📜 6. Questions in Search of Answers

6.1 Who Controlled the Economy?

• Temples and state both controlled land and trade.
• Land grants were given to Brahmins and temples (recorded in inscriptions).
• The king collected taxes from farmers, traders, and artisans.
• Merchants organized in guilds; controlled long-distance trade (horses, textiles, precious stones).

6.2 How Did Religion and State Interact?

• Religion provided legitimacy to rulers.
• Kings claimed divine sanction for their rule – e.g., Krishnadeva Raya called himself “representative of God Vishnu”.
• Temples received royal patronage and in turn, sanctified political authority.
• Conflicts occasionally arose between sects (Shaiva, Vaishnava, Jain), but overall harmony prevailed.

6.3 How Did the Empire Decline?

• After Krishnadeva Raya’s death (1529 CE), internal rivalries weakened the empire.
• Battle of Talikota (1565 CE): Vijayanagara forces defeated by the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda, and Bidar (Deccan Sultanates).
• City was looted and destroyed; royal family fled southwards.
• Aravidu dynasty continued nominal rule from Penukonda and Chandragiri.

6.4 What Happened to Hampi Afterwards?

• The site was abandoned and fell into ruins.
• Some temples like Virupaksha continued to be worshipped.
• By 19th century, it became an archaeological and cultural heritage site.
• Today, Hampi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (since 1986).

🌏 7. Cultural and Architectural Legacy

7.1 Art and Architecture

• Vijayanagara architecture combined Dravidian style with influences from Islamic and northern traditions.
• Temples: high gopurams (gateways), pillared halls (mandapas), and richly carved reliefs.
• Secular architecture: arches, domes, and lotus-shaped pavilions.
• Sculpture: themes from epics, dance, and daily life.

7.2 Literature and Language

• Court patronized multiple languages: Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Tamil.
• Krishnadeva Raya wrote Amuktamalyada in Telugu.
• Poets like Peddana, Tenali Rama, and Allasani Peddana flourished.
• Religious literature promoted bhakti philosophy.

7.3 Music and Dance

• Temple rituals included dance and music.
• Development of Carnatic music traditions.
• Royal patronage to devadasis (temple dancers).

7.4 Economy and Trade

• Export: spices, textiles, horses, and precious stones.
• Import: Arabian horses, Chinese silk, Persian goods.
• Ports like Goa, Mangalore, and Calicut linked the empire to the global trade network.

🪔 8. Vijayanagara – A City of Splendour

8.1 Impressions of Foreign Travelers

• Domingo Paes: described the city as “larger than Rome, well-planned, and prosperous.”
• Abdur Razzaq: admired its strong fortifications and vibrant markets.
• Fernao Nuniz: documented Krishnadeva Raya’s campaigns and the grandeur of his court.
• All noted its tolerance, wealth, and organization.

8.2 Social and Cultural Life

• Cosmopolitan city with people of different languages and religions.
• Women participated in trade and temple service.
• Guilds managed crafts and ensured quality.
• Society divided into Brahmins, warriors, merchants, and laborers.

🧩 9. Conclusion

• Vijayanagara was not only a political capital but also a centre of religion, art, architecture, and trade.
• It symbolized the fusion of diverse cultural traditions of South India.
• The empire represented an era of stability and prosperity before the Mughal expansion.
• Though destroyed in the 16th century, its ruins at Hampi continue to reveal the grandeur of medieval Indian civilization.
• It remains a testimony to India’s architectural genius and cultural resilience.