Chapter 2 – Bhakti–Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts (c. 8th to 18th Century)

1. A Mosaic of Religious Beliefs and Practices

1.1. The Pluralistic Religious Landscape

• India between the 8th and 18th centuries witnessed diverse faiths: Vedic Brahmanism, Buddhism, Jainism, Islam, and regional cults.
• Religion was deeply integrated with social, economic, and cultural life.
• Popular beliefs often merged different religious practices; people participated in multiple traditions.
• Local deities, nature worship, ancestral spirits, and fertility cults coexisted with formal religions.

1.2. Temples and Pilgrimages

• Temples became centres of social and cultural life; they were not merely places of worship.
• Major shrines like Jagannath (Odisha), Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu), Tirupati (Andhra Pradesh) attracted pilgrims.
• Pilgrimage routes promoted cultural unity and trade.
• The construction of temples was also an act of royal legitimacy; kings built temples to express power and devotion.

1.3. Image Worship and Rituals

• Image worship became a central feature of Hindu practice.
• Rituals included offerings, recitations, hymns, and festivals celebrating deities.
• Brahmanas held ritual authority as mediators between the devotee and deity.

1.4. Sacred Texts and Oral Traditions

• Sacred Sanskrit texts like Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, and Dharmashastras guided religious life.
• Simultaneously, oral traditions and vernacular stories spread religious ideas among the masses.
• Folk songs, local myths, and regional legends kept the traditions alive across linguistic boundaries.

1.5. Role of the Common People

• Common people often shaped religion through folk deities and local rituals.
• Women, peasants, and artisans contributed to popular forms of devotion outside Brahmanical control.

2. Poems of Prayer

2.1. The Transformative Role of Bhakti and Sufi Poetry

• Poetry became the vehicle of devotion—a means to communicate with God in an emotional, personal way.
• Compositions were written in vernacular languages: Tamil, Kannada, Marathi, Bengali, Hindi, Punjabi, etc.
• Poets rejected the elitism of Sanskrit and Persian, making devotion accessible to everyone.

2.2. Themes of Devotional Poetry

• Love and longing for God expressed through human relationships (e.g., devotee as lover, God as beloved).
• Criticism of empty rituals, caste distinctions, and orthodoxy.
• Emphasis on inner purity, simplicity, and sincerity.

2.3. Impact of Poetry

• Spread religious equality and emotional devotion.
• Strengthened the cultural unity of India through shared devotional sentiments.
• Created a new literary heritage influencing music, dance, and theatre.

3. Early Traditions of Bhakti

3.1. Origin in South India

• The earliest Bhakti movement began in South India (6th–9th centuries CE).
• Devotion (Bhakti) was offered to personal deities—Vishnu, Shiva, and goddesses.

3.2. The Alvars and Nayanars

• Alvars: Devotees of Vishnu; composed Tamil hymns called Divya Prabandham.
• Nayanars: Devotees of Shiva; composed Tevaram hymns.
• Both groups emphasized love and personal devotion (bhakti) over rituals and sacrifices.
• They opposed caste hierarchy—many saints came from non-Brahmana communities.

3.3. Key Ideas

• God is accessible to all—caste, gender, or social status do not matter.
• Emotional connection to God through singing, dancing, and prayer.
• Temples and devotional gatherings became social centres.

3.4. Patronage

• Rulers like the Pallavas, Cholas, and Pandyas patronized temple building and Bhakti poets.
• Bhakti became a powerful cultural and social movement linking the elite and commoners.

4. The Virashaiva Tradition in Karnataka

4.1. Emergence of Virashaivism

• Founded by Basavanna (12th century CE) in Karnataka.
• Followers known as Lingayats or Virashaivas (devotees of Shiva).

4.2. Key Principles

• Worship of Shiva Linga worn on the body as a symbol of devotion.
• Rejection of caste hierarchy, Brahmanical rituals, and temple worship.
• Emphasis on work as worship—honest labour is a form of devotion.
• Belief in gender equality and widow remarriage.
• Opposed child marriage and untouchability.

4.3. Literary Contribution

• The Lingayats composed Vachanas—short poetic sayings in Kannada expressing devotion.
• Prominent poets: Basavanna, Allama Prabhu, Akka Mahadevi.

4.4. Social Impact

• Became a social reform movement challenging orthodox Hinduism.
• Influenced later reformist ideas and non-Brahman movements in South India.

5. The Growth of Sufism

5.1. Introduction of Sufi Ideas

• Sufism refers to the mystical form of Islam focusing on inner purity and union with God (Allah).
• Sufi saints (known as Pirs or Sheikhs) spread Islam through love, tolerance, and humanity.

5.2. Principles of Sufism

• Emphasis on love for God and all creation.
• Belief that the path to God lies through service and devotion, not formal law (Sharia).
• Music, dance (Sama), and poetry used as means to experience divine love.
• Stressed equality among human beings, rejecting distinctions of wealth or birth.

5.3. Khanqahs (Sufi Centres)

• Sufi saints established Khanqahs or hospices—places of spiritual training, prayer, and charity.
• They served as centres of learning, service, and community welfare.

5.4. Sufi Orders (Silsilas)

• Sufis organized into Silsilas (orders), each with its own spiritual lineage.
• Important orders in India:
  • Chishti – Emphasized love, tolerance, and humility.
  • Suhrawardi – Focused on social and political engagement.
  • Qadiri and Naqshbandi – Later popular orders.

5.5. Spread of Sufism in India

• Came to India with Arab traders, Persian missionaries, and Turkish rulers.
• Adapted to Indian cultural traditions, adopting local languages and customs.
• Promoted communal harmony between Hindus and Muslims.

6. The Chishtis in the Subcontinent

6.1. Introduction

• Chishti order was one of the most influential Sufi orders in India.
• Founded by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti of Ajmer (12th–13th century).

6.2. Teachings of the Chishtis

• Emphasized love, humility, and equality.
• Advocated service to humanity (khidmat) as the true path to God.
• Rejected luxury, power, and formal orthodoxy.

6.3. Important Chishti Saints

• Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (Ajmer) – called Gharib Nawaz (benefactor of the poor).
• Sheikh Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (Delhi) – known for simplicity and spiritual strength.
• Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi) – most famous; attracted people of all faiths.
• Amir Khusrau – poet, musician, disciple of Nizamuddin; introduced new Indian-Persian musical forms.

6.4. Practices

• Langar (community kitchen) for the poor.
• Sama (devotional music) sessions to experience divine ecstasy.
• Followers included both Hindus and Muslims, showing religious tolerance.

6.5. Royal Connections

• Chishtis generally kept distance from rulers, emphasizing spiritual over political power.
• Yet rulers like Iltutmish, Alauddin Khalji, Muhammad bin Tughluq respected them.

6.6. Dargahs (Shrines)

• After a saint’s death, his tomb became a Dargah (shrine)—a place of pilgrimage and devotion.
• Famous dargahs: Ajmer Sharif (Rajasthan), Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi).

7. New Devotional Paths

7.1. The Bhakti Movement in North India

• From 13th to 18th centuries, Bhakti spread across North India.
• Saints preached in vernacular languages to reach common people.

7.2. Two Broad Streams

1. Saguna Bhakti – Worship of a personal god with form (Rama, Krishna, Devi, etc.).
   • Saints: Tulsidas, Mirabai, Surdas, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.
2. Nirguna Bhakti – Worship of a formless god beyond rituals.
   • Saints: Kabir, Nanak, Raidas, Dadu Dayal.

7.3. Kabir (15th century)

• Born near Varanasi; possibly raised by a Muslim weaver family.
• Composed dohe (couplets) in Hindi expressing mystical ideas.
• Criticized both Brahmanical ritualism and Islamic orthodoxy.
• Believed in oneness of God, equality, and inner devotion.
• Said: “Jab main tha tab Hari nahin, ab Hari hai main nahin.”

7.4. Guru Nanak (1469–1539)

• Founder of Sikhism; born in Punjab.
• Preached belief in one formless God (Ik Onkar).
• Condemned superstition, caste, and ritualism.
• Stressed Naam Simran (remembering God’s name) and Kirat Karo (honest work).
• His teachings collected in the Guru Granth Sahib.

7.5. Mirabai (16th century)

• Rajput princess of Mewar; devotee of Lord Krishna.
• Composed bhajans expressing love and surrender to Krishna.
• Rejected royal life and social norms to pursue spiritual devotion.
• Her songs are sung in Rajasthani, Braj, and Gujarati.

7.6. Tulsidas and Surdas

• Tulsidas – author of Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi; presented Rama as an ideal being.
• Surdas – composed Sursagar; celebrated Krishna’s childhood and divine play.
• Both promoted Saguna Bhakti and inspired temple and performance traditions.

7.7. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (Bengal)

• Preached love and devotion to Krishna through kirtans (singing and dancing).
• Promoted Vaishnavism and religious tolerance.

8. Dialogue and Dissent in Northern India

8.1. Religious Dialogues

• Interaction between Bhakti saints and Sufis created spaces of dialogue and exchange.
• Both emphasized love, equality, and inner devotion over rituals.
• This inter-religious communication enriched Indian spiritual culture.

8.2. Syncretic Traditions

• Emergence of composite religious practices—e.g., Dargahs visited by both Hindus and Muslims.
• Popular festivals and fairs often blended multiple traditions.
• Shared vernacular vocabularies of love and devotion.

8.3. Dissent and Reform

• Bhakti and Sufi movements challenged orthodoxy and caste discrimination.
• Questioned authority of priests and ulema.
• Encouraged direct relationship with God through love and meditation.

8.4. Women Saints

• Women like Akka Mahadevi, Mirabai, Lal Ded voiced spiritual autonomy.
• They challenged patriarchal norms and inspired equality in devotion.

9. Reconstructing Histories of Religious Traditions

9.1. Sources for the Study

• Hagiographies (biographies of saints) – provide accounts of their lives and miracles.
• Poetic compositions – bhajans, dohas, vachanas, and kirtans.
• Sufi texts – malfuzat (conversations), maktubat (letters), tazkiras (biographies).
• Architectural remains – temples, dargahs, and shrines.

9.2. Challenges in Interpretation

• Hagiographies often mix fact and legend; difficult to separate history from myth.
• Many texts were translated and transmitted orally, leading to variations.
• Historians use cross-comparison of sources to verify information.

9.3. Vernacular Sources

• Local languages preserved regional versions of devotion.
• Helped historians understand social diversity and linguistic development.

9.4. Archaeological and Epigraphic Evidence

• Inscriptions, coins, and monuments provide clues about patronage, saints, and sects.
• Temples and dargahs show shared architectural motifs, symbolizing cultural blending.

Conclusion

• Between the 8th and 18th centuries, India witnessed a flowering of devotional traditions—Bhakti and Sufi movements.
• They emphasized love, equality, compassion, and direct connection with the divine.
• Both movements challenged ritualism, caste, and orthodoxy, offering a new vision of spirituality.
• The Bhakti–Sufi synthesis contributed to India’s composite culture, blending elements of Hindu and Islamic mysticism.
• Their literature, music, and poetry continue to inspire the ideals of tolerance, harmony, and humanity even today.