🏛️ Chapter 2: Kings, Farmers and Towns — Early States and Economies (c. 600 BCE – 600 CE)

Introduction

• Between 600 BCE and 600 CE, Indian society witnessed significant changes — political unification, agricultural expansion, urbanization, and development of trade networks.
• This era saw the emergence of states, empires, inscriptions, and coins, revealing complex social and economic patterns.
• Major sources: archaeological remains, inscriptions, coins, and literary texts such as the Mahajanapada lists, Arthashastra, Buddhist and Jain literature.

1. Prinsep and Piyadassi

James Prinsep (1799–1840)

• A British antiquarian and scholar who worked in the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
• In 1830s, Prinsep successfully deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts, which were used in early inscriptions of India.
• His work opened a new era of epigraphic study and historical reconstruction.

Piyadassi (“Beloved of the Gods”)

• Prinsep’s discovery revealed that many inscriptions were issued by King Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire (3rd century BCE).
• The name Piyadassi appears in numerous Ashokan edicts, meaning “gracious or kind-looking one.”
• Identification of Piyadassi with Ashoka was made after studying Sri Lankan chronicles (Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa), which described a ruler named Ashoka Piyadassi.
• This connection allowed historians to attribute the edicts to Ashoka, giving direct evidence of Mauryan rule, administration, and Buddhist ideology.

Significance

• Decipherment of inscriptions allowed historians to access authentic primary records of ancient rulers.
• It transformed understanding of India’s early political history and state systems.

2. The Earliest States (c. 600 BCE – 400 BCE)

Background

• Before 600 BCE, India was dominated by tribal and clan-based polities (jana, gana).
• Around this time, 16 Mahajanapadas (great states) emerged in the Ganga valley and northwest India.

The Sixteen Mahajanapadas

• According to Buddhist texts (e.g., Anguttara Nikaya), they were:
  Anga, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, and Kamboja.
• These varied from monarchies (e.g., Magadha, Kosala) to oligarchic republics (gana-sanghas) like Vajji and Malla.

Features

• Capital cities often fortified with moats and ramparts (e.g., Rajagriha, Shravasti).
• Use of iron tools (ploughs, sickles) improved agriculture and produced surplus.
• Surplus supported administration, armies, and artisans.
• Rise of urban centers such as Rajagriha, Ujjain, Taxila, Kaushambi, and Vaishali.

Rise of Magadha

• Became the most powerful Mahajanapada.
• Factors for success:
  • Rich iron deposits in Bihar.
  • Fertile Gangetic plains and riverine trade routes.
  • Strategic location near Ganga–Son junction.
  • Strong rulers: Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Mahapadma Nanda.
• Magadha laid foundation for the first empire — the Mauryan Empire.

3. An Early Empire — The Mauryan Empire (c. 321–185 BCE)

Formation

• Founded by Chandragupta Maurya (321 BCE) after overthrowing the Nandas.
• Expanded under Bindusara, and reached greatest extent under Ashoka (c. 273–232 BCE).

Sources of Information

• Arthashastra (by Kautilya/Chanakya).
• Ashokan inscriptions and edicts.
• Greek accounts (Megasthenes’ Indica).
• Buddhist texts like Ashokavadana.

Administration

• The empire was divided into provinces (janapadas), each ruled by a viceroy.
• Central authority held by the king, assisted by ministers and councilors.
• Well-organized bureaucracy and spy network ensured control.
• Revenue administration managed land tax and customs.

Ashoka’s Dhamma

• Emphasized moral conduct, non-violence (ahimsa), tolerance, and compassion.
• Spread through rock and pillar edicts across the subcontinent.
• Aimed to unite subjects under a common ethical and humanistic policy, not a religion.

Decline

• After Ashoka’s death (232 BCE), the empire weakened due to:
  • Succession disputes.
  • Over-centralization.
  • Economic strain.
  • Invasions from northwest (Greco-Bactrians).
• Ended around 185 BCE.

4. New Notions of Kingship (Post-Mauryan Era)

Emergence of Regional Kingdoms (200 BCE – 300 CE)

• After Mauryan fall, India fragmented into smaller regional powers —
  Shungas, Satavahanas, Indo-Greeks, Kushanas, and Guptas.
• Kings used divine and ritual authority to legitimize power.

Divine Kingship

• Rulers began associating themselves with gods or divine symbols.
• Example: Kushana ruler Kanishka used the title Devaputra (Son of God).
• Coins and inscriptions displayed religious imagery — Shiva, Buddha, Vishnu.

Patronage of Religion

• Kings supported Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jain establishments through land grants.
• Donations to monasteries (vihāras) and temples enhanced prestige.
• Example: Satavahana rulers granted land to Brahmanas and Buddhist monks.

Rituals and Power

• Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Rajasuya symbolized sovereign power.
• Rulers sought ritual validation from Brahmanas to maintain authority.

5. A Changing Countryside

Agricultural Expansion

• Between 600 BCE and 600 CE, agriculture spread from Ganga plains to Deccan and South India.
• Supported by:
  • Use of iron ploughs and irrigation (wells, tanks, canals).
  • Clearing of forests for cultivation.
  • Growth of settlements (villages) across river valleys.

Land Grants

• Kings and landlords began granting land to Brahmanas, monasteries, and temples.
• Inscriptions record these gifts (agrahara, devadana).
• Land-grants led to:
  • Decline in state control over revenue.
  • Growth of landlord class.
  • Creation of semi-feudal structures.

Rural Society

• Villages had farmers, laborers, artisans, and herders.
• Social hierarchy included land-owners (grihapatis) and landless workers (dasa-karmakaras).
• Agricultural surplus sustained urban growth and religious institutions.

6. Towns and Trade

Urban Revival

• The period witnessed revival of urban centers after Mauryan decline.
• Archaeological evidence from Mathura, Taxila, Ujjain, Pataliputra, Amaravati shows thriving towns.

Characteristics

• Towns had markets (panyasala), streets, and guilds (shrenis) of artisans.
• Evidence of craft specialization — ivory-work, metal-craft, pottery, weaving.
• Discovery of punch-marked coins and Roman gold coins indicates active trade.

Guilds (Shrenis)

• Organized groups of artisans or traders.
• Functioned as economic and social institutions — maintained quality, regulated prices, and acted as banks.
• Each guild had a head (shreshthin) and maintained collective funds.

Long-Distance Trade

• Maritime trade expanded across the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.
• Ports like Bharuch, Kaveripattinam, Arikamedu connected India to Rome, Southeast Asia, and Africa.
• Roman demand for spices, textiles, and gems enriched Indian merchants.

Evidence from Literature

• Sangam poems (Tamilakam) describe port towns, merchants, and ship trade.
• The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century CE) mentions Indian ports and commodities.

7. Back to Basics — Understanding Sources

Types of Historical Sources

1. Inscriptions (Epigraphic Records)
2. Coins (Numismatic Evidence)
3. Archaeological sites
4. Texts (Religious and Secular Literature)

Inscriptions

• Engraved on stone, metal, or pottery.
• Record royal edicts, land grants, tax details, religious donations.
• Earliest examples: Ashokan Edicts (3rd century BCE).

Coins

• Punch-marked coins (silver, copper) — earliest currency.
• Later, cast and die-struck coins with symbols or portraits.
• Reveal information about trade, economy, kingship, and art.

8. How Are Inscriptions Deciphered?

Brahmi Script

• Used in Ashokan edicts; written left to right.
• Deciphered by James Prinsep (1830s) through comparison of bilingual inscriptions and patterns.

Kharosthi Script

• Used in north-west India, written right to left.
• Derived from Aramaic script.
• Deciphered by studying coins and bilingual records.

Techniques

• Identifying recurring word patterns (like royal titles).
• Comparing regional variations.
• Correlating with known languages (Pali, Prakrit, Sanskrit).

Outcome

• Decipherment helped historians reconstruct:
  • Names of rulers.
  • Geographical extent of kingdoms.
  • Political ideology and administrative structures.

9. The Limitations of Inscriptional Evidence

• Inscriptions are not complete or uniform.
• Selective — record only royal achievements, rarely common life.
• Weathering and damage cause loss of information.
• Language and regional variations complicate interpretation.
• Sometimes dating is uncertain or exaggerated (to glorify kings).
• Nevertheless, they remain primary evidence for early Indian history.

10. Conclusion

• Between 600 BCE and 600 CE, India transformed from tribal communities to organized states and empires.
• Development of agriculture, coinage, and trade created economic dynamism.
• Urban centers thrived, and religious-cultural integration spread through patronage.
• Inscriptions and coins became crucial historical sources.
• Despite limitations, they reveal a picture of an economically vibrant, politically diverse, and culturally rich civilization.

Quick Recap (Point Summary)

1. Prinsep deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi, identifying Piyadassi as Ashoka.
2. Sixteen Mahajanapadas formed early political units.
3. Magadha emerged dominant due to geography and resources.
4. Mauryan Empire unified India under Chandragupta, Bindusara, Ashoka.
5. Ashoka’s Dhamma promoted moral governance.
6. Post-Mauryan period saw Kushanas, Satavahanas, Guptas and the rise of divine kingship.
7. Agricultural expansion led to land grants and social hierarchies.
8. Towns revived as centers of trade and crafts.
9. Guilds organized artisans and merchants.
10. Maritime trade connected India with Rome and Southeast Asia.
11. Inscriptions and coins serve as vital historical records.
12. Decipherment of scripts revolutionized understanding of early Indian history.