Chapter 1 — Bricks, Beads and Bones: The Harappan Civilization

1. Introduction: The Harappan Civilization

• The Harappan Civilization is the earliest urban civilization in the Indian subcontinent.
• It is also known as the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) because most of its sites are located in the Indus River valley.
• Flourished roughly between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE.
• Major sites: Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, Kalibangan, Lothal, Chanhudaro, Rakhigarhi.
• The civilization covered parts of present-day Pakistan, northwest India, and western India.
• Discovered first in 1921 (Harappa by Daya Ram Sahni) and 1922 (Mohenjo-Daro by R.D. Banerjee).
• It represented an urban culture with planned cities, brick architecture, advanced drainage, and trade networks.
• The civilization’s script, seals, and crafts reflect a complex social, economic, and political system.

2. Beginnings of the Harappan Civilization

• Earlier rural settlements existed before urbanization — called Early Harappan phase (c. 3200–2600 BCE).
• Gradual transition from agricultural villages to towns and cities.
• Agricultural surplus led to specialization in crafts and trade.
• The Mature Harappan phase (2600–1900 BCE) marked full urban development.
• Settlements had citadel and lower town, showing social stratification.
• Late Harappan phase (1900–1300 BCE) saw decline and ruralization.
• The civilization developed from regional cultures in Sindh and Baluchistan which interacted through trade and resource sharing.

3. Subsistence Strategies

(a) Agriculture

• Main crops: wheat, barley, peas, sesame, lentils, dates.
• Cotton was grown — earliest evidence of cotton cultivation in the world.
• Use of ploughs and irrigation (e.g., canals, wells) to support farming in arid areas.
• Flood plains of Indus provided fertile soil and water supply.
• Evidence of crop rotation and multiple cropping.

(b) Animal Husbandry

• Animals reared: cattle, sheep, goats, buffalo, pigs.
• Camels, elephants, and asses used for transport and labor.
• Humped zebu cattle was common.
• Evidence of domesticated dogs and cats.

(c) Fishing and Hunting

• Fish bones found at Lothal and Mohenjo-Daro.
• Hunting of deer, rhinoceros, and wild birds shown in seals and figurines.

(d) Trade and Resource Exchange

• Internal trade among Harappan towns and rural hinterlands.
• Long-distance trade with Mesopotamia, Oman, Bahrain, and Iran.
• Traded goods: metals (copper, bronze, gold, silver), beads, textiles, grains, ivory.

4. Mohenjo-Daro: A Planned Urban Centre

• Located in present-day Sindh, Pakistan on the bank of the Indus River.
• One of the best-preserved Harappan cities.
• Showcases advanced town planning and civic amenities.

(a) Town Planning

• Divided into Citadel (upper town) and Lower town.
• Citadel: built on a raised mud-brick platform; contained important buildings like Granary, Great Bath, assembly halls.
• Lower town: residential area with uniform house patterns.

(b) Drainage System

• Houses had private bathrooms and toilets connected to covered drains.
• Drains made of burnt bricks, covered with stone slabs.
• Inspection holes provided for cleaning.
• Shows concern for hygiene and urban management.

(c) Architecture

• Houses made of standardized baked bricks (ratio 1:2:4).
• One, two, or three-storey houses with courtyards and wells.
• Streets followed grid pattern, intersecting at right angles.
• Presence of public wells and bathing platforms.

(d) The Great Bath

• Found in the citadel area of Mohenjo-Daro.
• Made of baked bricks, gypsum mortar, and bitumen for waterproofing.
• Had steps on both sides and a drainage outlet.
• Possibly used for ritual bathing or ceremonies.

5. Tracking Social Differences

(a) Uniformity and Planning

• Uniform brick size and city layout suggest centralized control or common standards.

(b) Burials and Social Hierarchy

• Simple burials: extended body, head to north, pottery, ornaments.
• Some graves had more items — indicates status differences.
• No grand tombs or palaces found — egalitarian or modest elite society.

(c) Artefacts and Wealth

• Variation in houses and artefacts suggests economic inequalities.
• Luxury items: gold jewelry, faience beads, stone seals found in select areas.
• Granaries and large buildings indicate state or collective control.

6. Finding Out About Craft Production

(a) Craft Specialization

• Artisans produced beads, pottery, bangles, seals, weights, and tools.
• Workshops found at Chanhudaro, Lothal, Harappa.
• Materials used: steatite, terracotta, shell, carnelian, copper, bronze, faience.

(b) Tools and Techniques

• Use of chisels, drills, furnaces, and kilns.
• Bead-makers and shell-cutters worked with precision.
• Metalworking included casting, hammering, alloying.

(c) Centres of Production

• Chanhudaro: bead-making centre.
• Lothal: dockyard and trade hub.
• Balakot and Nageshwar: shell-working.
• Harappa: stone and metal crafts.

(d) Organization of Labour

• Evidence of division of labour and skill specialization.
• Possibly controlled by merchant groups or civic authorities.

7. Strategies for Procuring Materials

• Harappans lacked some raw materials; obtained them through trade and expeditions.

(a) Locally Available

• Clay, stones, food grains, fish — locally sourced.

(b) Imported or Exchanged

• Copper from Rajasthan and Oman.
• Tin from Afghanistan and Iran.
• Gold from Karnataka.
• Lapis lazuli from Badakhshan (Afghanistan).
• Carnelian from Gujarat.
• Shell from coastal regions.

(c) Trade and Transportation

• Bullock carts, boats, and river routes used for transportation.
• Lothal dockyard shows maritime trade.
• Standardized weights and seals helped regulate trade.

8. Seals, Script, and Weights

(a) Seals

• Made of steatite, engraved with animals and inscriptions.
• Carried motifs of unicorn, bull, elephant, rhinoceros.
• Used for stamping goods and identifying property.
• Seals also had religious or administrative purposes.

(b) Script

• Harappan script remains undeciphered.
• Found on seals, pots, copper tablets, and weights.
• About 400 distinct signs, usually written right to left.
• Possibly represented names, titles, or ownership marks.

(c) Weights and Measures

• Standardized binary system (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc.).
• Made of chert stones, cubical in shape.
• Uniformity indicates regulated economic system and administrative control.

9. Ancient Authority

• Absence of clear palaces or rulers — but evidence of organized control.
• Standardization in bricks, weights, and city layouts suggests central planning.
• Possible forms of authority:
  • Priests or elites controlling rituals and trade.
  • Merchants or administrators managing cities.
• Some scholars suggest collective governance rather than monarchy.
• The Great Bath and citadel indicate ritual or political authority.

10. The End of the Civilization

(a) Decline around 1900 BCE

• Urban centers abandoned gradually.
• Decline of trade, crafts, and script usage.

(b) Possible Causes

1. Environmental Changes – drying of rivers like Saraswati, floods in Indus basin.
2. Earthquakes or tectonic shifts altering river courses.
3. Decline in rainfall affecting agriculture.
4. Over-exploitation of resources leading to ecological imbalance.
5. Invasions or migrations (though debated).
6. Economic disintegration due to loss of long-distance trade.

(c) Continuity

• Harappan traditions continued in rural cultures: pottery styles, bead-making, settlement patterns.
• Some Late Harappan sites (e.g., Rangpur, Rakhigarhi) show continuity till 1300 BCE.

11. Discovering the Harappan Civilization

(a) Early Discoveries

• 1826: Charles Masson reported ruins near Harappa.
• 1870s: Alexander Cunningham identified Harappa as ancient site.
• 1920s: Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro under Daya Ram Sahni and R.D. Banerjee.
• John Marshall announced discovery of a “lost civilization” in 1924.

(b) Post-Independence Excavations

• New sites discovered: Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal (Gujarat), Dholavira (Kutch), Rakhigarhi (Haryana).
• Revealed regional variations and extent of civilization.

(c) Modern Methods

• Use of carbon dating, satellite imagery, chemical analysis, and ground-penetrating radar.
• Helped in mapping trade routes, environmental changes, and urban layouts.

12. Problems of Piecing Together the Past

• Archaeological evidence is fragmentary — interpretation is difficult.
• Script undeciphered, so written records unavailable.
• No clear evidence of rulers, religion, or language.
• Debate continues among historians on:
  • Nature of authority (king vs. collective rule).
  • Role of religion and rituals.
  • Causes of decline.
• Artefacts often have multiple interpretations — e.g., seals may be religious, administrative, or both.
• Reconstruction of economy and society relies on inference and comparison.

13. Conclusion

• The Harappan Civilization represents a highly developed urban culture of the ancient world.
• Its achievements in town planning, sanitation, craftsmanship, and trade were remarkable.
• Despite its decline, it laid the foundation for later cultural developments in the Indian subcontinent.
• Modern archaeology continues to uncover new insights, showing that the Harappans were innovative, organized, and resourceful people.

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