Class 9th History Pastoralists in the Modern World Notes

1. Pastoralists in India

1.1 Pastoral Communities of the Himalayas

• The Himalayas host several nomadic groups who move up and down the mountains depending on the season.

1. Gaddi Shepherds of Himachal Pradesh
   • Move annually between lowlands and highlands.
   • In winter → migrate to the low Shiwalik hills.
   • In summer → move up to the lush alpine meadows of Lahul and Spiti.
2. Gujjars of Jammu and Kashmir
   • Graze cattle in the dry forests of the Siwaliks during winter.
   • Move to high-altitude meadows in summer.
3. Bhotiyas, Sherpas, Kinnauris
   • Practised transhumance (movement between high and low altitudes).
   • Traded wool, salt, and other goods across passes into Tibet.

1.2 Pastoralists of the Plains

1. Banjaras
   • Important group in Rajasthan.
   • Known for their long caravan movements with cattle and pack animals.
   • Transported grains, salt, and other goods across India.
2. Raikas of Rajasthan
   • Lived in arid regions.
   • During monsoon → grazed sheep on grassy lands.
   • During dry months → moved to river valleys and harvested fields.
3. Maldharis of Gujarat
   • Cattle herders of the Gir forest.
   • Provided milk, ghee, wool to nearby villages.

1.3 Pastoralists of Plateaus and Deserts

1. Dhangars of Maharashtra
   • Seasonal cycle of movement:
     • Monsoon: stay in central Maharashtra, cultivate bajra.
     • Post-harvest: move to Konkan for grazing sheep on stubble.
     • Return in April before monsoon.
   • Provided manure and wool in exchange for rice and grain.
2. Kurumas and Kurubas of Andhra Pradesh & Karnataka
   • Reared sheep and goats.
   • Also worked as cultivators, weavers, and labourers.
3. Gollas of Andhra Pradesh
   • Cattle herders supplying milk.

1.4 Pastoralists of Plateaus and Hills in the South

• Toda of Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu) – Buffalo herders.
• Kurichiyas of Kerala – Practiced shifting cultivation and reared cattle.

2. Colonial Rule and Pastoral Life

The arrival of the British in India deeply changed the lives of pastoralists.

2.1 Colonial Attitude

• Pastoralism was seen as “primitive” and “unproductive”.
• The British preferred settled agriculture and controlled forests.

2.2 Forest Acts

• Forest Acts (1865, 1878, 1927) restricted access to forests.
• Reserved forests → grazing banned.
• Protected forests → limited grazing allowed but with permits.
• Traditional rights of fuel, fodder, and fruits were curtailed.

2.3 Criminal Tribes Act (1871)

• Nomadic groups were branded as “criminal tribes”.
• Constant surveillance, movement restricted.
• Pastoralists now required permits to travel.

2.4 Grazing Tax

• Introduced in the mid-19th century.
• Every animal had to be taxed.
• Pastoralists had to buy grazing permits for their herds.
• Result → decline in the number of animals and financial hardship.

2.5 Decline of Pastoral Lands

• Agricultural expansion → forests cleared, grazing lands lost.
• Canal colonies in Punjab: forests converted to wheat and cotton farms.
• Fallow lands reduced → less pasture.
• Railways and industries took over grazing areas.

3. Effects on Pastoral Communities

3.1 Economic Hardship

• High taxes, loss of pasture, and restrictions made survival difficult.
• Many became impoverished.

3.2 Change in Movement Patterns

• Old migratory routes blocked.
• Movements became shorter.
• Seasonal cycle of migration disrupted.

3.3 Decline in Animal Numbers

• Unable to maintain large herds due to grazing tax and less pasture.

3.4 Social Impact

• Pastoralists became marginalised.
• Some were forced to settle as cultivators or labourers.

4. Pastoralists in Africa

4.1 Maasai of East Africa

• Semi-arid grasslands of Kenya and Tanzania.
• Depended on cattle, which were central to their economy and culture.
• Wealth measured by number of cattle.

4.2 Colonial Interventions

1. Land Alienation
   • Large grazing lands taken away by European settlers.
   • Maasai confined to “reserves”.
2. Boundaries and Restrictions
   • Movement between Kenya and Tanzania restricted by colonial borders.
3. Taxes
   • Maasai forced to pay taxes in cash → compelled to work as labourers.
4. Famine and Disease
   • Rinderpest epidemic (1890s) killed 90% of cattle.
   • Led to famine and depopulation.

4.3 Transformation of Maasai Life

• Became impoverished and dependent on wage labour.
• Tribal chiefs appointed by British gained authority.
• Traditional pastoral economy weakened.

5. Pastoralism in the Modern World

5.1 Challenges

• Expansion of agriculture, industries, and cities has reduced grazing lands.
• Governments promote settled farming over nomadic life.

5.2 Adaptations

• Pastoralists continue to adapt:
  • Shorter migrations.
  • Diversifying into trade, labour, small cultivation.
  • Selling dairy, wool, and meat in markets.

5.3 Significance Today

• Despite hardships, pastoralism remains important:
  • Provides dairy, meat, wool, leather.
  • Supports rural economies.
  • Preserves traditional ecological knowledge.

Key Terms

• Pastoralists – Nomadic people who rear animals.
• Transhumance – Seasonal migration of herders between highlands and lowlands.
• Grazing Tax – Tax imposed on each animal under colonial rule.
• Reserved Forest – Forests under strict government control.
• Criminal Tribes Act – Law declaring nomadic groups as criminal.
• Rinderpest – Cattle disease that devastated African herds.

Timeline

• 1871 – Criminal Tribes Act in India.
• 1878 – Forest Act restricts grazing rights.
• 1890s – Rinderpest epidemic in Africa.
• 1904 – Maasai moved into reserves by British.