Class 9th History Forest Society and Colonialism Notes

1. Why Deforestation?

1.1 Meaning of Deforestation

Deforestation refers to the permanent destruction of forests to make the land available for other uses such as cultivation, mining, plantations, or construction.

During the 19th and early 20th centuries, India witnessed massive deforestation due to British policies.

1.2 Causes of Deforestation in Colonial India

1. Expansion of Agriculture
   • The British encouraged the production of food crops and cash crops (jute, cotton, indigo, sugar, wheat).
   • The population of India was rising → demand for more farmland.
   • Forests were cleared to make space for cultivation and settlements.
   • Example: In the Madras Presidency, between 1880 and 1920, cultivation expanded by 6.7 million hectares.
2. Demand for Timber for Railways
   • After 1850, railway networks expanded rapidly in India.
   • Railways needed wooden sleepers to hold tracks together.
   • Each mile of railway track required 1,760 sleepers.
   • The length of railway tracks increased from 95,000 km in 1860 to over 765,000 km in 1946.
   • Forests became the primary source of timber supply.
3. Shipbuilding
   • Before the 19th century, timber was crucial for making ships for the Royal Navy.
   • Strong teak and oak were required for warships.
   • Forests in India were exploited for this purpose.
4. Industrial Uses
   • Forest timber was used for furniture, paper, fuel, charcoal.
   • Industries in Britain and Europe depended heavily on Indian forest products.
5. Plantations
   • The British introduced large-scale commercial plantations of tea, coffee, indigo, and rubber.
   • These plantations were meant for export, not local use.
   • To establish them, vast stretches of forests were cleared.

2. Forest Management under Colonial Rule

2.1 Colonial Attitude towards Forests

• The British did not see forests as habitats of people but as sources of revenue and raw material.
• Local communities were treated as intruders in their own lands.

2.2 Indian Forest Acts

The British introduced a series of forest laws:

1. Indian Forest Act, 1865
   • Gave the government power to declare any land covered with trees as a forest.
   • Limited local rights.
2. Indian Forest Act, 1878
   • Divided forests into three categories:
     • Reserved Forests – most restricted, used only by the state.
     • Protected Forests – some limited rights for villagers.
     • Village Forests – open for use by villagers.
   • Villagers lost rights to fuelwood, fruits, grazing, and shifting cultivation.
3. Indian Forest Act, 1927
   • Consolidated earlier laws.
   • Provided stricter control over forest use.
   • Criminalized hunting, grazing, and shifting cultivation.

2.3 Scientific Forestry

• Introduced in India by German foresters working with the British.
• Forests were treated like “crops” to be harvested.
• Old forests were cut down and replaced with plantations of single species (teak, sal, chir pine).
• Methods:
  1. Trees of different ages were felled in sections.
  2. Plantation of saplings in straight rows.
  3. Rotation cycle followed – trees harvested after 30–40 years.
• Impact:
  • Biodiversity destroyed.
  • Monocultures replaced natural forests.
  • Tribal people lost access to forest produce.

3. Impact on Forest Communities

3.1 Loss of Rights

• Tribals could no longer collect firewood, fruits, herbs, or hunt animals.
• Grazing cattle was restricted.
• Even fishing and collecting honey became illegal.

3.2 Ban on Shifting Cultivation

• Shifting cultivation (jhum) = slash-and-burn agriculture practiced by tribals.
• Steps: forest cleared → burnt → seeds sown → harvested → land left fallow.
• British banned it because:
  1. Believed it destroyed forests.
  2. Difficult to tax.
  3. Forest land was needed for plantations.
• Result: Tribals lost food security and livelihoods.

3.3 Hunting

• Hunting was part of tribal life and culture.
• British banned hunting for tribals but promoted it as “sport” for officials.
• Trophy hunting of tigers, leopards, elephants became popular among British elites.
• Ironically, wildlife population declined drastically under colonial rule.

3.4 Plantation Labour

• Tribals were recruited for tea and coffee plantations in Assam and South India.
• Conditions:
  • Long working hours.
  • Very low wages.
  • Harsh discipline; not allowed to return home.
  • Lived in miserable conditions, often compared to slavery.

4. Forest Communities and Colonial Resistance

4.1 Everyday Resistance

• Villagers continued to cut wood, graze cattle, or hunt secretly.
• Passive resistance → avoiding taxes, hiding grain.

4.2 Rebellions

1. Bastar Rebellion (1910) – Chhattisgarh
   • Trigger: British restrictions on forest use + high taxes.
   • People of Bastar (tribals, farmers, labourers) rose in revolt.
   • Attacked police stations, traders, and officials.
   • Suppressed brutally by the British.
2. Santhal Revolt (1855–56) – Jharkhand
   • Cause: Exploitation by moneylenders, zamindars, and British officials.
   • Thousands of Santhals took up arms.
   • British army suppressed the revolt; leaders executed.
3. Other Movements
   • Revolts in Odisha (1890s), Nagas in North-East, Gonds in Central India.

5. Forests and World Wars

5.1 First World War (1914–18)

• Demand for timber and railway sleepers skyrocketed.
• Forest laws tightened, villagers forced to supply resources.

5.2 Second World War (1939–45)

• Exploitation of forests increased further.
• Even more restrictions placed on villagers.

6. Forests in Other Colonies – Case of Java

6.1 Dutch Scientific Forestry in Indonesia

• Dutch introduced scientific forestry in Java.
• Restricted villagers’ access to forests.

6.2 Blandongdiensten System

• Villagers forced to provide free labour for timber cutting, transport, and plantation.
• Exploited like bonded labour.

6.3 Resistance – Samin Rebellion

• Led by Saminists in the 1890s–1907.
• Refused to pay taxes or obey forest laws.
• Non-violent resistance against Dutch rule.

7. After Independence

• Even after 1947, deforestation continued in India.
• Large dams, mining projects, and industries required land.
• Expansion of agriculture also led to forest clearance.
• New challenges emerged: balancing development and conservation.

Key Terms

• Deforestation – Large-scale clearing of forests.
• Scientific Forestry – System of controlled tree plantation for profit.
• Reserved Forests – Most restricted forests under government control.
• Shifting Cultivation – Slash-and-burn agriculture practiced by tribals.
• Plantations – Large farms producing cash crops for export.
• Bastar Rebellion – Tribal uprising in 1910 against British forest policies.
• Blandongdiensten System – Forced labour system under Dutch in Java.

Timeline

• 1865 – First Indian Forest Act.
• 1878 – Forest Act divided forests into three categories.
• 1890s–1907 – Samin Movement in Java.
• 1910 – Bastar Rebellion in India.
• 1914–18 – First World War (intense exploitation of forests).
• 1939–45 – Second World War (greater exploitation).