1. French Society During the Late Eighteenth Century
1.1 The Ancient Régime
- France before the Revolution was ruled by an absolute monarchy under Louis XVI of the Bourbon dynasty.
- The political system was known as the Old Regime (Ancien Régime).
- Society was divided into three estates.
1.2 The Three Estates
- First Estate – Clergy
- Enjoyed special privileges.
- Owned about 10% of the land.
- Collected tithes (a tax from peasants, usually one-tenth of agricultural produce).
- Exempted from paying taxes to the state.
- Held political and religious authority.
- Second Estate – Nobility
- Controlled about 25–30% of land.
- Enjoyed feudal privileges.
- Collected feudal dues and taxes from peasants.
- Held key positions in the military, church, and government.
- Exempt from most taxes.
- Third Estate – Common People
- Made up about 95% of the population.
- Included:
- Peasants and farmers (worked on noble lands, paid feudal dues).
- Urban workers/artisans (struggled with high prices).
- Middle Class (bourgeoisie) – merchants, lawyers, doctors, intellectuals.
- Bore the entire tax burden.
- Paid tithes to the Church, feudal dues to Nobility, and taxes to the state.
1.3 Burden of Taxes
- The Third Estate bore the burden of taxation: Taille (direct land tax), Tithe, Gabelle (tax on salt), and many indirect taxes.
- Resentment grew against this unfair system.
2. The Struggle to Survive
2.1 Population and Food Supply
- France’s population rose from 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789.
- Increased demand for food → rise in bread prices.
- Subsistence crisis (when basic needs cannot be met) became common.
2.2 Subsistence Crisis
- Poor harvests led to food shortages.
- Bread was the staple diet; its rising price hit the poor hardest.
- Wages failed to keep pace with inflation.
- This crisis was one of the main triggers of discontent.
3. The Growing Middle Class and New Ideas
3.1 Emergence of the Middle Class
- With trade and commerce expanding, a new bourgeoisie class rose.
- Composed of merchants, lawyers, professionals, and educated people.
- Believed in merit, not privilege by birth.
- Criticized the feudal system.
3.2 Role of Enlightenment Philosophers
- John Locke – opposed divine rights of kings, promoted natural rights (life, liberty, property).
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau – promoted the idea of a social contract, sovereignty rested with people.
- Montesquieu – proposed division of powers among legislative, executive, and judiciary.
- Voltaire – criticized the Church, promoted freedom of speech and tolerance.
3.3 Influence of American Revolution
- American War of Independence (1776) inspired the French middle class.
- Proved that monarchy could be overthrown.
4. The Outbreak of the Revolution
4.1 Financial Crisis under Louis XVI
- France was under immense debt due to wars, including support for the American Revolution.
- Extravagant court expenditure at Versailles worsened the situation.
- To raise funds, the king tried to impose new taxes.
4.2 Estates-General Meeting (May 1789)
- Called after 175 years.
- Each estate sent representatives.
- Voting system: One estate = One vote.
- The Third Estate demanded one person, one vote system (fair representation).
- When refused, they walked out.
4.3 Formation of National Assembly
- On 20 June 1789, members of the Third Estate took the Tennis Court Oath – pledging not to separate until they gave France a constitution.
- They declared themselves the National Assembly.
4.4 Storming of the Bastille (14 July 1789)
- People of Paris stormed the Bastille prison, symbol of royal despotism.
- This marked the beginning of the French Revolution.
5. France Abolishes Monarchy and Becomes a Republic
5.1 Abolition of Feudalism
- On 4 August 1789, National Assembly abolished feudal dues, privileges, and tithes.
- Church lands confiscated and sold to repay debts.
5.2 The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (August 1789)
- Inspired by Enlightenment and American Revolution.
- Key points:
- All men are born free and equal in rights.
- Natural rights: liberty, property, security, resistance to oppression.
- Law is expression of the general will.
- Freedom of speech and opinion.
5.3 Constitution of 1791
- Limited monarchy established.
- Separation of powers: Executive (King), Legislature (Assembly), Judiciary.
- Only active citizens (men over 25 who paid taxes) could vote.
- Passive citizens (women, poor, servants) excluded.
6. The Revolution and Everyday Life
6.1 Impact on Monarchy
- King Louis XVI tried to flee (Flight to Varennes, 1791) but was caught.
- People lost trust in monarchy.
6.2 Rise of Political Clubs
- Jacobins – led by Maximilien Robespierre; radical revolutionaries.
- Girondins – moderate revolutionaries.
- Sans-culottes – working-class revolutionaries.
6.3 France Becomes a Republic
- On 21 September 1792, monarchy was abolished; France declared a republic.
- King Louis XVI executed in January 1793; Queen Marie Antoinette in October 1793.
7. The Reign of Terror (1793–94)
7.1 Robespierre’s Dictatorship
- Committee of Public Safety under Robespierre.
- Harsh measures: censorship, rationing, price controls.
- Suspected enemies were guillotined.
7.2 Fall of Robespierre
- Executed in July 1794.
- His rule showed dangers of extreme revolution.
8. The Directory Rules France (1795–99)
- A new constitution introduced.
- Executive power vested in a Directory (five members).
- Political instability continued.
- Paved the way for Napoleon Bonaparte’s rise in 1799.
9. Women and the Revolution
- Women played active roles: protests, demonstrations, forming clubs.
- Demanded equal rights, education, participation in government.
- Olympe de Gouges wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Citizen (1791).
- Women’s political clubs were later banned (1793).
10. The Abolition of Slavery
- Slavery existed in French colonies like the Caribbean.
- Revolutionary ideals challenged slavery.
- In 1794, slavery was abolished.
- Napoleon reinstated it in 1802, but it was permanently abolished in 1848.
11. The Revolution and Everyday Symbols
- New flag – tricolour (blue, white, red).
- New hymns, oaths, festivals promoted nationalism.
- Titles of nobility abolished.
- Equality before law established.
12. Legacy of the French Revolution
- Spread ideas of liberty, equality, fraternity.
- Inspired future revolutions in Europe, Latin America, and Asia.
- Promoted nationalism and democratic values.
- Showed power of common people in bringing change.