Through the Eyes of Travellers: Perceptions of Society (c. 10th–17th Centuries)

Introduction

Between the 10th and 17th centuries, India witnessed:

• The rise of powerful kingdoms and empires (Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagara, Mughal Empire).
• Vibrant urban centers, trade networks, and cultural exchanges.
• Coexistence of diverse religious communities – Hindus, Muslims, Jains, Christians, Buddhists.

Travellers from across the world – Arabs, Persians, Central Asians, Chinese, and Europeans – visited the subcontinent. Their writings, often in the form of travelogues, memoirs, chronicles, and letters, provide unique perspectives on Indian society, politics, economy, and culture.

This chapter examines how foreign eyes saw India and how their observations help us reconstruct the history of medieval India.

1. Importance of Travel Accounts

🌟 Why Travellers Came to India

• Pilgrimage (Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim).
• Trade and commerce.
• Political missions and diplomacy.
• Curiosity and exploration.

🌟 Sources They Left Behind

• Memoirs (e.g., Baburnama).
• Travelogues (e.g., Ibn Battuta’s Rihla).
• Official reports (Portuguese chronicles).
• Letters and diaries of Jesuit missionaries.

🌟 Value of Their Accounts

• Provide outsider’s perspective.
• Offer details about everyday life often ignored in official inscriptions.
• Reveal cross-cultural encounters.
• But must be read critically – many travellers exaggerated or misunderstood local customs.

2. Prominent Travellers to India

Al-Biruni (11th century)

• From Khwarazm (Central Asia).
• Came with Mahmud of Ghazni during his invasions.
• Wrote Kitab-ul-Hind – a study of Indian philosophy, religion, science, and customs.
• Admired Indian knowledge in astronomy and mathematics but criticized caste system.

Marco Polo (13th century)

• Venetian traveller.
• Visited southern India (Kakatiyas, Pandya kingdom).
• Described trade, pearl fisheries, spices, and social practices like sati.

Ibn Battuta (14th century)

• Moroccan traveller.
• Appointed Qazi of Delhi under Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
• Wrote Rihla (Travels).
• Described Sultan’s eccentricities, administration, postal system, and social customs.
• Noted urban vibrancy of Delhi and Daulatabad.

Niccolò de’ Conti (15th century)

• Italian traveller.
• Wrote about Vijayanagara – prosperity, markets, military strength.

Abdur Razzaq (15th century)

• Persian envoy of Shah Rukh (Timurid ruler).
• Stayed in Vijayanagara court (Deva Raya II).
• Praised city planning, palace, wealth of merchants.

Duarte Barbosa (16th century)

• Portuguese traveller.
• Wrote about Malabar coast, spice trade, and matrilineal customs.

Fernao Nuniz (16th century)

• Portuguese chronicler.
• Described Vijayanagara’s administration, military, and society.

Babur (16th century)

• Founder of Mughal dynasty.
• In Baburnama, described flora, fauna, rivers, and people of India.
• Criticized Indian climate and lifestyle but admired wealth.

Ralph Fitch (16th century)

• English traveller.
• Travelled through Goa, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, Bengal.
• Provided details of trade and crafts.

Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (17th century)

• French jeweller.
• Traded diamonds and gems.
• Described Mughal court, markets, and luxury goods.

François Bernier (17th century)

• French physician.
• Lived at Mughal court of Aurangzeb.
• Criticized Indian economy for lack of private property rights.
• Compared Mughal India with Europe.

Niccolao Manucci (17th century)

• Italian adventurer.
• His Storia do Mogor narrates Mughal politics, wars, and court intrigues.

🌟 Collectively, these travellers give us rich, multi-layered pictures of India’s diversity.

3. Perceptions of Indian Society

Caste and Social Order

• Al-Biruni noted fourfold varna system, but also many jatis.
• Ibn Battuta described slavery, status of women, and differences among communities.
• Europeans often misunderstood caste, equating it to rigid class barriers.

Women and Gender Relations

• Marco Polo and Barbosa noted practices like sati.
• Travellers described matriliny in Kerala.
• Ibn Battuta wrote about royal women’s influence in Delhi Sultanate.

Slavery and Servitude

• Ibn Battuta observed slave markets and use of slaves in households.
• Babur mentioned use of war captives.

4. Perceptions of Political Systems

• Ibn Battuta highlighted Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s ambitious projects but poor execution.
• Abdur Razzaq praised Vijayanagara’s king for justice and discipline.
• Bernier compared Mughal absolutism with European monarchy.
• Portuguese observers noted naval power of Indian rulers on west coast.

5. Perceptions of Economy and Trade

🌟 Agriculture

• Travellers admired fertility of Indian plains.
• Babur described crops like sugarcane, rice, cotton.

🌟 Trade

• Barbosa and Tavernier praised Indian textiles and spice trade.
• Indian ports like Calicut, Surat, Masulipatnam attracted merchants from Arabia, China, Europe.

🌟 Urban Centers

• Ibn Battuta admired Delhi as one of the largest cities of the Islamic world.
• Abdur Razzaq described Vijayanagara as the best-provided city in the world.
• Europeans marveled at Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, and Lahore under Mughals.

6. Perceptions of Religion and Culture

• Al-Biruni studied Sanskrit texts to understand Hinduism.
• Ibn Battuta described Islamic institutions – mosques, Sufi saints, madrasas.
• Portuguese travellers recorded Hindu temple rituals and festivals.
• Jesuit missionaries debated with Brahmins and Mughals on Christianity.

7. Travel Accounts as Historical Sources

🌟 Strengths

• Provide contemporary observations.
• Cover aspects not recorded in inscriptions (daily life, trade, gender relations).
• Reveal outsider’s curiosity and comparison.

🌟 Limitations

• Many had biases – religious, cultural, or political.
• Often exaggerated wealth or strangeness.
• Language barriers led to misinterpretations.

Thus, historians must cross-check travelogues with archaeology, inscriptions, and indigenous texts.

8. Cultural Exchanges Through Travel

• Exchange of ideas, technology, food habits, art styles.
• Introduction of new crops (tobacco, potato, maize) through Europeans.
• Spread of Persianate culture via Central Asian travellers.
• Growth of Indo-Islamic architecture admired by Europeans.

9. Indian Society Through Comparative Lenses

• Bernier compared India with France, criticizing lack of private property.
• Tavernier compared diamond trade in India with Europe’s markets.
• Jesuit accounts compared Hindu rituals with Catholic practices.

🌟 Such comparisons reveal how outsiders understood India relative to their own worldviews.

Conclusion

Travellers between the 10th and 17th centuries provide us rich narratives of Indian life:

• They observed social diversity, caste system, role of women, slavery.
• Admired urban prosperity, agricultural fertility, and vibrant trade.
• Recorded political structures from Delhi Sultanate to Mughal Empire.
• Reflected on religious pluralism and cultural practices.

Though shaped by bias and perspective, their accounts remain invaluable windows into India’s medieval past.

FAQs

Q1. Why are travellers’ accounts important for historians?
They provide details of everyday life, economy, and culture often missing in inscriptions and official chronicles.

Q2. Who wrote Kitab-ul-Hind?
Al-Biruni in the 11th century.

Q3. Which traveller visited Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s court?
Ibn Battuta.

Q4. Who described Vijayanagara as one of the richest cities?
Abdur Razzaq and Niccolò de’ Conti.

Q5. Which European travellers wrote about the Mughal court?
François Bernier, Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, Niccolao Manucci, among others.